Editing Compost (section)

== Materials that can be composted ==
Potential sources of compostable materials, or feedstocks, include residential, agricultural, and commercial waste streams. Residential food or yard waste can be composted at home,<ref>{{cite web|title=Composting for the Homeowner - University of Illinois Extension|url=http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/science.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217221013/http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/science.cfm|archive-date=17 February 2016|access-date=12 July 2021|website=Composting for the Homeowner|publisher=University of Illinois Board of Trustees}}</ref> or collected for inclusion in a large-scale municipal composting facility. In some regions, it could also be included in a local or neighborhood composting project.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nierenberg |first1=Amelia |title=Composting Has Been Scrapped. These New Yorkers Picked Up the Slack. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/09/nyregion/nyc-compost-recycling.html |access-date=17 November 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=9 August 2020 |archive-date=25 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125032441/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/09/nyregion/nyc-compost-recycling.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=STA Feedstocks|url=https://www.compostingcouncil.org/page/STA-Feedstocks|website=U.S. Composting Council|access-date=17 November 2020|archive-date=27 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027064105/https://www.compostingcouncil.org/page/STA-Feedstocks|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Organic solid waste ===
{{Main|Biodegradable waste}}
[[File:Spontaneous combustion of compost pile.jpg|thumb|A large compost pile is steaming with the heat generated by [[thermophile|thermophilic]] microorganisms.]]

The two broad categories of organic solid waste are green and brown.  Green waste is generally considered a source of nitrogen and includes pre- and post-consumer [[food waste]], grass clippings, garden trimmings, and fresh leaves.<ref name=":4" /> Animal carcasses, roadkill, and butcher residue can also be composted, and these are considered nitrogen sources.<ref>{{cite web |title=Natural Rendering: Composting Livestock Mortality and Butcher Waste |url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/2149/naturalrenderingFS.pdf?sequence=19&isAllowed=y |publisher=Cornell Waste Management Institute |access-date=17 November 2020 |date=2002 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224214513/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/2149/naturalrenderingFS.pdf?sequence=19&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}</ref>

Brown waste is a carbon source. Typical examples are dried vegetation and woody material such as fallen leaves, straw, woodchips, limbs, logs, pine needles, sawdust, and wood ash, but not charcoal ash.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Rishell |first1=Ed |title=Backyard Composting |url=https://www.pubs.ext.vt.edu/content/dam/pubs_ext_vt_edu/HORT/HORT-49/HORT-49-PDF.pdf |website=Virginia Cooperative Extension |publisher=Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University |access-date=17 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920170413/http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/content/dam/pubs_ext_vt_edu/HORT/HORT-49/HORT-49-PDF.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2018 |date=2013}}</ref>  Products derived from wood such as paper and plain cardboard are also considered carbon sources.<ref name=":4" />

=== Animal manure and bedding ===
On many farms, the basic composting ingredients are animal [[manure]] generated on the farm as a [[nitrogen]] source, and bedding as the carbon source. Straw and sawdust are common bedding materials. Nontraditional bedding materials are also used, including newspaper and chopped cardboard.<ref name=":4" /> The amount of manure composted on a livestock farm is often determined by cleaning schedules, land availability, and weather conditions. Each type of manure has its own physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Cattle and horse manures, when mixed with bedding, possess good qualities for composting. Swine manure, which is very wet and usually not mixed with bedding material, must be mixed with straw or similar raw materials. Poultry manure must be blended with high-carbon, low-nitrogen materials.<ref>Dougherty, Mark. (1999). Field Guide to On-Farm Composting. Ithaca, New York: Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service.</ref>

=== Human excreta{{anchor|Humanure}} ===
{{Further|Reuse of excreta}}
[[Human excreta]], sometimes called "humanure" in the composting context,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://modernfarmer.com/2017/03/humanure-next-frontier-composting/ |title=Humanure: The Next Frontier in Composting |first=Brian |last=Barth |work=Modern Farmer |date=7 March 2017 |access-date=23 March 2022 |archive-date=21 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521095117/https://modernfarmer.com/2017/03/humanure-next-frontier-composting/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/may/12/humanure-composting-toilets |title=Humanure: the end of sewage as we know it? |via=[[The Guardian]] |work=Grist |date=12 May 2009}}</ref> can be added as an input to the composting process since it is a nutrient-rich organic material. Nitrogen, which serves as a building block for important plant amino acids, is found in solid human waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nitrogen in the Plant |url=https://extension.missouri.edu/publications/wq259 |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=extension.missouri.edu |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-02 |title=Human waste could be used to create nitrogen-rich fertilizer |url=https://www.news-medical.net/news/20200602/Human-waste-could-be-used-to-create-nitrogen-rich-fertilizer.aspx |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=News-Medical.net |language=en}}</ref> Phosphorus, which helps plants convert sunlight into energy in the form of ATP, can be found in liquid human waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Phosphate in Urine |url=https://wa.kaiserpermanente.org/kbase/topic.jhtml?docId=hw202342 |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=wa.kaiserpermanente.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Phosphorus Basics: Deficiency Symptoms, Sufficiency Ranges, and Common Sources |url=https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/crop-production/phosphorus-basics-deficiency-symptoms-sufficiency-ranges-and-common-sources/ |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=Alabama Cooperative Extension System |language=en-US}}</ref>

Solid human waste can be collected directly in [[composting toilets]], or indirectly in the form of [[sewage sludge]] after it has undergone treatment in a [[Sewage treatment|sewage treatment plant]]. Both processes require capable design, as potential health risks need to be managed. In the case of home composting, a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and parasitic worms, can be present in feces, and improper processing can pose significant health risks.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Domestic waste composting facilities: a review of human health risks.|journal = Environment International|volume = 35|issue = 2|pages = 382–9|date = August 2012|pmid = 18701167|last1 = Domingo|first1 = J. L.|last2 = Nadal|first2 = M.|doi = 10.1016/j.envint.2008.07.004}}</ref>  In the case of large sewage treatment facilities that collect wastewater from a range of residential, commercial and industrial sources, there are additional considerations. The composted sewage sludge, referred to as [[biosolids]], can be contaminated with a variety of metals and pharmaceutical compounds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kinney |first1=Chad A. |last2=Furlong |first2=Edward T. |last3=Zaugg |first3=Steven D. |last4=Burkhardt |first4=Mark R. |last5=Werner |first5=Stephen L. |last6=Cahill |first6=Jeffery D. |last7=Jorgensen |first7=Gretchen R. |title=Survey of Organic Wastewater Contaminants in Biosolids Destined for Land Application † |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |date=December 2006 |volume=40 |issue=23 |pages=7207–7215 |doi=10.1021/es0603406 |pmid=17180968 |bibcode=2006EnST...40.7207K |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es0603406 |access-date=2 January 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414130639/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es0603406 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morera |first1=M T |last2=Echeverría |first2=J. |last3=Garrido |first3=J. |title=Bioavailability of heavy metals in soils amended with sewage sludge |journal=Canadian Journal of Soil Science |date=1 November 2002 |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=433–438 |doi=10.4141/S01-072 |bibcode=2002CaJSS..82..433M |url=https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.4141/S01-072 |access-date=2 January 2021 |hdl=2454/10748 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=13 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713211355/https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.4141/S01-072 |url-status=live }}</ref> Insufficient processing of biosolids can also lead to problems when the material is applied to land.<ref>{{cite news |title='Humanure' dumping sickens homeowner |url=https://www.insideottawavalley.com/community-story/3800586--humanure-dumping-sickens-homeowner/ |access-date=2 January 2021 |publisher=Renfrew Mercury |date=13 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151110103646/https://www.insideottawavalley.com/community-story/3800586--humanure-dumping-sickens-homeowner/ |archive-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>

[[Urine]] can be put on compost piles or directly used as fertilizer.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://esa.un.org/iys/docs/san_lib_docs/ESR2web%5B1%5D.pdf |title=Stockholm Environment Institute - EcoSanRes - Guidelines on the Use of Urine and Feces in Crop Production |access-date=14 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230041356/http://esa.un.org/iys/docs/san_lib_docs/ESR2web%5b1%5d.pdf |archive-date=30 December 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Adding urine to compost can increase temperatures, so can increase its ability to destroy pathogens and unwanted seeds. Unlike feces, urine does not attract disease-spreading flies (such as [[Housefly|houseflies]] or [[Calliphoridae|blowflies]]), and it does not contain the most hardy of pathogens, such as [[parasitic worm]] eggs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trimmer |first1=J.T. |last2=Margenot |first2=A.J. |last3=Cusick |first3=R.D. |last4=Guest |first4=J.S. |title=Aligning Product Chemistry and Soil Context for Agronomic Reuse of Human-Derived Resources |journal=Environmental Science and Technology |date=2019 |volume=53 |issue=11 |pages=6501–6510|doi=10.1021/acs.est.9b00504 |pmid=31017776 |bibcode=2019EnST...53.6501T |s2cid=131775180 }}</ref>

=== Animal remains ===
Animal carcasses may be composted as a disposal option. Such material is rich in nitrogen.<ref>{{cite web |title=Composting Large Animal Carcasses |url=https://tammi.tamu.edu/2017/07/20/composting-large-animal-carcasses/ |website=Texas Animal Manure Management Issues |date=20 July 2017}}</ref>

==== Human bodies ====
{{excerpt|Human composting}}