Editing Cupid and Psyche (section)

===Literature===
In 1491, the poet Niccolò da Correggio retold the story with Cupid as the narrator.<ref name="autogenerated57">Entry on "Apuleius," ''Classical Tradition, ''p. 57.</ref> [[John Milton]] alludes to the story at the conclusion of ''[[Comus (John Milton)|Comus]]'' (1634), attributing not one but two children to the couple: Youth and Joy. [[Shackerley Marmion]] wrote a verse version called ''Cupid and Psyche'' (1637), and [[La Fontaine]] adapted the story into a mixed prose and verse romance named ''Les Amours de Psiché et de Cupidon'' (''The Loves of Cupid and Psyche''; 1669).<ref name="autogenerated57"/>

[[William Blake's mythology]] draws on elements of the tale particularly in the figures of [[Luvah]] and [[Vala (Blake)|Vala]]. Luvah takes on the various guises of Apuleius's Cupid: beautiful and winged; disembodied voice; and serpent.<!--a giddily non-parallel construction--> [[William Blake|Blake]], who mentions his admiration for Apuleius in his notes, combines the myth with the spiritual quest expressed through the eroticism of the [[Song of Solomon]], with [[Solomon]] and the [[Shulamite]] as a parallel couple.<ref>Raine, ''Blake and Tradition'', vol. 1, pp. 182–203, quoting Blake's notes on ''[[A Vision of the Last Judgment]]'', and especially pp. 183, 191 and 201.</ref>

[[File:Cupid and psyche.jpg|thumb|left|280px|''[[Love and Psyche (David)|Cupid and Psyche]]'' (1817) by [[Jacques-Louis David]]: the choice of narrative moment—a [[libertine]] adolescent Cupid departs Psyche's bed with "malign joy"<ref>As described by a contemporary reviewer of the new work, quoted by Philippe Bordes, ''Jacques-Louis David: Empire to Exile'' (Yale University Press, 2005), p. 234.</ref>—was a new twist on the well-worn subject<ref>Bordes, ''Jacques-Louis David,'' p. 232.</ref>]]

[[Mary Tighe]] published her poem ''Psyche'' in 1805. She added some details to the story, such as placing two springs in Venus' garden, one with sweet water and one with bitter. When Cupid starts to obey his mother's command, he brings some of both to a sleeping Psyche, but places only the bitter water on Psyche's lips. Tighe's Venus only asks one task of Psyche, to bring her the forbidden water, but in performing this task Psyche wanders into a country bordering on [[Edmund Spenser|Spenser]]'s ''[[The Faerie Queene|Fairie Queene]]'' as Psyche is aided by a mysterious visored knight and his squire Constance, and must escape various traps set by Vanity, Flattery, Ambition, Credulity, Disfida (who lives in a "Gothic castle"), Varia and Geloso. Spenser's [[Blatant Beast]] also makes an appearance. Tighe's work influenced English lyric poetry on the theme, such as the ''[[Ode to Psyche]]'' (1820) by [[John Keats]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44480/ode-to-psyche|title=Ode To Psyche|last=Keats|first=John|website=Poetry Foundation|date=15 August 2021}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]]'s poem ''Cupid and Psyche'' (1826) illustrates an engraving of a painting by W. E. West.

[[William Morris]] retold the Cupid and Psyche story in verse in ''[[The Earthly Paradise]]'' (1868–70), and a chapter in [[Walter Pater]]'s ''[[Marius the Epicurean]]'' (1885) was a prose translation.<ref name="autogenerated57"/> About the same time, [[Robert Bridges]] wrote ''[[Eros and Psyche (Robert Bridges)|Eros and Psyche: A Narrative Poem in Twelve Measures]]'' (1885; 1894).

[[Sylvia Townsend Warner]] transferred the story to [[Victorian era|Victorian]] England in her novel ''The True Heart'' (1929), though few readers made the connection till she pointed it out herself.<ref>J. Lawrence Mitchell, "Ray Garnett as Illustrator". ''Powys Review'' '''10''' (spring 1982), pp. 9–28.</ref> Other literary adaptations include ''[[The Robber Bridegroom (novel)|The Robber Bridegroom]]'' (1942), a novella by [[Eudora Welty]]; ''[[Till We Have Faces]]'' (1956), a version by [[C. S. Lewis]] narrated by a sister of Psyche; and the poem "Psyche: 'Love drove her to Hell'" by [[H.D.|H.D. (Hilda Doolittle)]].<ref>Entry on "Apuleius," ''Classical Tradition,'' p. 57.</ref>  [[Robert A. Johnson (psychotherapist)|Robert A. Johnson]] made use of the story in his book ''She: Understanding Feminine Psychology'', published in 1976 by [http://www.harpercollins.com/search-results?contributor=robert-a-johnson HarperCollinsPublishers].

====Translations====
[[William Adlington]] made the first translation into English of Apuleius's ''Metamorphoses'' in 1566, under the title ''{{Not a typo|The XI Bookes of the Golden Asse, Conteininge the Metamorphosie of Lucius Apuleius}}''. Adlington seems not to have been interested in a Neoplatonic reading, but his translation consistently suppresses the sensuality of the original.<ref name="autogenerated168"/> [[Thomas Taylor (neoplatonist)|Thomas Taylor]] published an influential translation of ''Cupid and Psyche'' in 1795, several years before his complete ''Metamorphoses''.<ref>Raine, ''Blake and Tradition'', vol. 1, p. 182.</ref> A translation by [[Robert Graves]] appeared in 1951 as ''The Transformations of Lucius Otherwise Known as THE GOLDEN ASS, A New Translation by Robert Graves from Apuleius'', published by [[Farrar, Straus & Giroux]], New York.

====Folklore and children's literature====
[[File:Edward Burne-Jones Pan and Psyche.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Pan (god)|Pan]] and Psyche'' (1872–74) by Edward Burne-Jones]]

=====Origins=====
Folklore scholarship has also occupied itself with the possible origin of the narrative.<ref>Walsh, Patrick G. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9xA8AAAAIAAJ&dq=%22tulisa%22+cupid+and+psyche&pg=PA194 The Roman novel: The 'Satyricon' of Petronius and the 'Metamorphoses' of Apuleius]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970. pp. 193-195.</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/9781108163767.003 |chapter=Intercultural Encounters in the Late Byzantine Vernacular Romance |title=Reading the Late Byzantine Romance |year=2018 |last1=Cupane |first1=Carolina |pages=40–68 |isbn=9781108163767 |s2cid=192357521 }}</ref> Swedish folklorist {{ill|Jan-Öjvind Swahn|sv|Jan-Öjvind Swahn}}, who authored a long study on the story, German philologist [[Ludwig Friedländer]] and Russian folklorist [[Vladimir Propp]] defended the idea that it originated from a legitimate folklore source.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silva |first1=Francisco Vaz da |title=The Invention of Fairy Tales |journal=Journal of American Folklore |date=1 October 2010 |volume=123 |issue=490 |pages=398–425 |doi=10.5406/jamerfolk.123.490.0398 }}</ref><ref>Friedländer, Ludwig. ''Roman life and manners under the early Empire''. Vol. IV. London: Routledge. 1913. p. 102.</ref><ref>"Some scholars date the tale to this era [2nd century DC]. At the same time, Apuleius’s tale represents the first, most ancient written record of the folktale, but the tale itself is undoubtedly much more ancient. Apuleius’s text is a literary reworking, made by a thinker and philosopher." ''The Russian Folktale by Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp''. Edited and Translated by Sibelan Forrester. Foreword by [[Jack Zipes]]. Wayne State University Press, 2012. p. 190. {{ISBN|9780814334669}}.</ref>

Some scholars tend to look for a single source: [[Stith Thompson]] suggested an Italian origin,<ref>{{cite book |quote=The tale [of Cupid and Psyche] has most of the elements of the present-day folk story (...) we have here what certainly appears to be a real tale of the Italian countryside during the reign of [[Marcus Aurelius]] |last=Thompson |first=Stith |date=1977 |title=The Folktale |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |pages=281–282 |isbn=0-520-03537-2}}</ref> while Lesky, Gédeon Huet<ref>{{cite book |quote=Nous possêdons encore, dans l'histoire de Psyche, inserée par Apulee dans son roman des ''Metamorphoses'', un vrai conte populaire de l'antiquité ... |last=Huet |first=Gedeon Busken |url=https://archive.org/details/ContesPopulaires/page/n42/mode/1up?q=psyche |title=Contes populaires |location=Paris |publisher=E. Flammarion |date=1923 |pages=43 |language=FR}}</ref> and {{ill|Georgios A. Megas|el|Γεώργιος Μέγας}} indicated a Greek origin.<ref>Megas, G. 1967. ''Das Märchen von Amor und Psyche in der griechischen Volksüberlieferung (AaTh 425, 428 & 432)''. Athens</ref> French {{ill|Émile Dermenghem|fr|Émile Dermenghem}} favoured a North African source,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herrmann |first1=Léon |title=Review of The Tale of Cupid and Psyche, Aarne-Thompson 425 and 428 |journal=Latomus |date=1955 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=494 |jstor=41518077 }}</ref> followed by French researchers Nedjima and Emmanuel Plantade, who all argue that the tale is a reworking of [[Berbers|Berber]] folklore, since Apuleius was born and lived in [[Madauros]], [[Numidia (Roman province)|Numidia]], located in what is modern day Algeria.<ref>Plantade, Emmanuel and Nedjima. "[https://www.academia.edu/3623771/Libyca_Psyche_Apuleius_and_the_Berber_Folktales Libyca Psyche: Apuleius and the Berber Folktales]". In: ''Apuleius and Africa''. Editors: Benjamin Todd Lee, Luca Graverini, Ellen Finkelpearl. Routledge, 2014. pp. 174-202.</ref>

Another line of scholars argue for some myth that underlines the Apuleian narrative. German classicist [[Richard August Reitzenstein]] supposed on an "Iranian sacral myth", brought to Greece via Egypt.<ref>Reitzenstein, Richard. ''[https://archive.org/details/dasmrchenvonam00reituoft/page/21/mode/1up?q=deutung Das märchen von Amor und Psyche bei Apuleius]''. Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. 1912.</ref><ref>[[Hendrik Wagenvoort|Wagenvoort, H.]] ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yel5DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22iranian%22+cupid+and+psyche&pg=PA86 Pietas: Selected Studies in Roman Religion]''. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1980. p. 86. {{ISBN|90-04-06195-9}}.</ref> Graham Anderson argues for a reworking of mythic material from Asia Minor (namely, [[Hittite mythology and religion|Hittite]]: the [[Telipinu (mythology)|Myth of Telipinu]]).<ref>Anderson, Graham (2000). ''Fairytale in the ancient world''. Routledge. pp. 61-69. {{ISBN|978-0-415-23702-4}}.</ref> In a study published posthumously, Romanian folklorist {{ill|Petru Caraman|ro|Petru Caraman}} also argued for a folkloric origin, but was of the notion that Apuleius superimposed Graeco-Roman mythology on a pre-Christian myth about a serpentine or draconic husband, or a "King of Snakes" that becomes human at night.<ref>Repciuc, Ioana. "[https://biblioteca-digitala.ro/?volum=5097-anuarul-muzeului-etnografic-al-moldovei--xv-2015 Identificarea sursei folclorice a basmului Cupidon şi Psyché de către Petru Caraman – în contextul cercetărilor internaţionale]" [Petru Caraman's Work on Identifying the Folkloric Source of Cupidon şi Psyche Fairytale – In the Context of International Research]. In: ''Anuarul Muzeului Etnografic al Moldovei'' 15 (2015): 193, 197-205.</ref>

On the other extreme, German classicist {{ill|Detlev Fehling|de|Detlev Fehling}} took a hard and skeptical approach and considered the tale to be a literary invention of Apuleius himself.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dowden |first1=Ken |title=Detlev Fehling: Amor und Psyche: Die Schöpfung des Apuleius und ihre Einwirkung auf das Märchen, eine Kritik der romantischen Märchentheorie. (Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur: Abhandlungen der Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse: Jahrgang 1977: Nr. 9.) Pp. 110. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1977. Paper, DM. 28. |journal=The Classical Review |date=October 1979 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=314 |doi=10.1017/S0009840X00233465 }}</ref>

=====Literary legacy=====
Friedländer also listed several European tales of marriage between a human maiden and prince cursed to be an animal, as related to the "Cupid and Psyche" cycle of stories (which later became known as "[[The Search for the Lost Husband]]" and "[[Animal as Bridegroom]]").<ref>Friedländer, Ludwig. ''Roman life and manners under the early Empire''. Vol. IV. London: Routledge. 1913. pp. 88-123.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hurbánková |first1=Šárka |title=G.B. Basile and Apuleius: first literary tales : morphological analysis of three fairytales |journal=Graeco-Latina Brunensia |date=2018 |issue=2 |pages=75–93 |doi=10.5817/GLB2018-2-6 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Bruno Bettelheim]] notes in ''[[The Uses of Enchantment]]'' that the 18th-century fairy tale ''[[Beauty and the Beast]]'' is a version of ''Cupid and Psyche''. Motifs from Apuleius occur in several fairy tales, including ''[[Cinderella]]'' and ''[[Rumpelstiltskin]]'', in versions collected by folklorists trained in the classical tradition, such as [[Charles Perrault]] and the [[Grimm brothers]].<ref>Harrison, "Cupid and Psyche," ''Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome,'' p. 339.</ref> In the Grimm version, Cinderella is given the task of sorting lentils and peas from ash, and is aided by birds just as ants help Psyche in the sorting of grain and legumes imposed on her by Venus. Like Cinderella, Psyche has two envious sisters who compete with her for the most desirable male. Cinderella's sisters mutilate their own feet to emulate her, while Psyche's are dashed to death on a rocky cliff.<ref>Amy K. Levin, ''The Suppressed Sister: A Relationship in Novels by Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century British Women'' (Associated University Presses, 1992), pp. 23–24 ''et passim.''</ref> In [[Hans Christian Andersen]]'s ''[[The Little Mermaid]]'', the Little Mermaid is given a dagger by her sisters, who, in an attempt to end all the suffering she endured and to let her become a mermaid again, attempt to persuade her to use it to slay the Prince while he is asleep with his new bride. She cannot bring herself to kill the Prince, however. Unlike Psyche, who becomes immortal, she doesn't receive his love in return, but she, nevertheless, ultimately earns the eternal soul she yearns for.

[[Thomas Bulfinch]] wrote a shorter adaptation of the Cupid and Psyche tale for his ''Age of Fable'', borrowing Tighe's invention of Cupid's self-wounding, which did not appear in the original. [[Josephine Preston Peabody]] wrote a version for children in her ''Old Greek Folk Stories Told Anew'' (1897).

[[C. S. Lewis]]' ''[[Till We Have Faces]]'' is a retelling of Apuleius' ''Cupid and Psyche'' from the perspective of one of Psyche's sisters. ''[[Till We Have Faces]]'' is C. S. Lewis' last work of fiction and elaborates on Apuleius' story in a modern way.