Editing Disruptive innovation (section)

==Examples==
In the practical world, the popularization of [[personal computers]]  illustrates how knowledge contributes to the ongoing technology innovation. The original centralized concept (one computer, many persons) is a knowledge-defying idea of the prehistory of computing, and its inadequacies and failures have become clearly apparent. The era of personal computing brought powerful computers "on every desk" (one person, one computer). This short transitional period was necessary for getting used to the new computing environment, but was inadequate from the vantage point of producing knowledge. Adequate knowledge creation and management come mainly from networking and distributed computing (one person, many computers). Each person's computer must form an access point to the entire computing landscape or ecology through the Internet of other computers, databases, and mainframes, as well as production, distribution, and retailing facilities, and the like. For the first time, technology empowers individuals rather than external hierarchies. It transfers influence and power where it optimally belongs: at the [[Locus of control|loci]] of the useful knowledge. Even though hierarchies and bureaucracies do not innovate, free and empowered individuals do; knowledge, innovation, spontaneity, and self-reliance are becoming increasingly valued and promoted.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/business_technology/views_from_the_front_lines_of_the_data_analytics_revolution | title=Views from the front lines of the data-analytics revolution | publisher=McKinsey Quarterly | last=Brown | first=Brad | date=March 2014}}</ref>

Uber is not an example of disruption because it did not originate in a low-end or new market footholds.<ref name=":0" /> One of the conditions for the business to be considered disruptive according to [[Clayton M. Christensen]] is that the business should originate on a) low-end or b) new-market footholds. Instead, Uber was launched in San Francisco, a large urban city with an established taxi service and did not target low-end customers or create a new market (from the consumer perspective). In contrast, UberSELECT, an option that provides luxurious cars such as limousines at a discounted price, is an example of disruption innovation because it originates from a low-end customer segment - customers who would not have entered the traditional luxurious market.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://hbr.org/2015/12/what-is-disruptive-innovation |title=What Is Disruptive Innovation? |website=Harvard Business Review |date=December 2015 |accessdate=February 4, 2025}}</ref>
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PLEASE PROVIDE SOURCES THAT ARGUE THAT THE INNOVATION YOU ARE ADDING IS A DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION. 
To be a disruptive innovation it must have
DISRUPTED SOME MARKET BECAUSE NO ONE SAW IT COMING. 
i.e., firms went out of business, there were enormous changes in market share. Otherwise it's just not that disruptive.
People tend to add innovations that are "revolutionary", but not disruptive. See definitions in the introduction of the article.

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! Category !! Disruptive innovation !! Market disrupted by innovation !! Notes
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| [[Reference work|Printed reference works]]
|[[Wikipedia]] || Traditional [[encyclopedias]] || Traditional, for-profit general encyclopedias with articles written by paid experts have been displaced by Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia which is written and edited by volunteer editors. Former market leader ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' ended its print production after 244 years in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bosman|first=Julie|title=After 244 Years, {{Sic|Encyclopaedia|hide=yes}} Britannica Stops the Presses|url=http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/after-244-years-encyclopaedia-britannica-stops-the-presses/|access-date=April 1, 2012|newspaper=The New York Times|date=March 13, 2012}}</ref> ''Britannica'''s price of over $1000, its physical size of dozens of hard-bound volumes, its weight of over {{convert|100|lb}}, its number of articles (about 120,000) and its update cycles lasting a year or longer made it unable to compete with Wikipedia, which provides free, online access to over 6 million articles with most of them updated more frequently.

Wikipedia not only disrupted printed paper encyclopedias; it also disrupted digital encyclopedias. Microsoft's [[Encarta]], a 1993 entry into professionally edited digital encyclopedias, was once a major rival to ''Britannica'' but was discontinued in 2009.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tartakoff|first=Joseph|title=Victim Of Wikipedia: Microsoft To Shut Down Encarta|url=http://paidcontent.org/article/419-microsoft-pulls-the-plug-on-msn-encarta/|work=paidContent|access-date=April 1, 2012|date=March 30, 2009|archive-date=February 28, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120228191556/http://paidcontent.org/article/419-microsoft-pulls-the-plug-on-msn-encarta/|url-status=dead}}</ref>  Wikipedia's free access, online accessibility on computers and [[smartphone]]s, unlimited size and instant updates are some of the challenges faced by for-profit competition in the encyclopedia market.
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| rowspan="2" | [[Communication]] || [[Telephony]] || [[Telegraphy]] || When [[Western Union]] declined to purchase [[Alexander Graham Bell]]'s telephone patents for $100,000, their highest-profit market was long-distance telegraphy. Telephones were only useful at that time for very local calls. Short-distance telegraphy barely existed as a market segment, which explains Western Union's decision to not enter the emerging telephone market. Telephones quickly displaced telegraphs by offering much greater communication capacity.
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|| [[FM broadcasting|FM radio]] || [[AM broadcasting|AM radio]]
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| rowspan="6" | [[Computer]] hardware || [[Minicomputer]]s || [[Mainframe computer|Mainframes]] || Minicomputers were originally presented as an inexpensive alternative to mainframes and mainframe manufacturers did not consider them a serious threat in their market. Eventually, the market for minicomputers (led by Seymour Cray—[[Daisy chain (electrical engineering)|daisy chaining]] his minisupercomputers) became much larger than the market for mainframes.
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| [[Personal computer]]s || [[Minicomputer]]s, [[workstation]]s, [[word processor]]s, [[Lisp machines]]
|Personal computers combined all functions into one device.
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| [[Pocket calculator]]|| 3.5&nbsp;standard calculator{{Clarify|date=December 2023|reason=What is a 3.5 standard calculator?}}||Equivalent computing performance and portable
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| [[Digital calculator]] || [[Mechanical calculator]] || [[Facit AB]] used to dominate the European market for calculators, but did not adopt digital technology, and failed to compete with digital competitors.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.christiansandstrom.org/content/PhDchristiansandstrom.pdf |first=Christian G. |last=Sandström |title=A revised perspective on Disruptive Innovation – Exploring Value, Networks and Business models (Theisis submitted to Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden) |date=2010 |access-date=November 22, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511194636/http://www.christiansandstrom.org/content/PhDchristiansandstrom.pdf |archive-date=May 11, 2011 }}</ref>
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|[[Mobile phone]]s
|[[Car phone]]s and [[Portable media player|MP3 players]]
|The inherent portability of mobile phones and eventual [[Bluetooth]] integration into cars and mobile phones rendered the need for a separate car phone moot. A similar situation occurred once mobile phones gained the ability to play and store a significant number of [[MP3|MP3 files]]. 
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| [[Smartphone]]s || All prior types of rudimentary [[feature phones]] and [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]]s || Smartphones were both a revolutionary (in the mobile phone industry) and disruptive innovation (displacing PDAs) as they were: generally more capable than earlier types of mobile phones, introduced and popularized entirely [[App store|new services/markets]] that were exclusive to smartphones, had a secondary function as a PDA, and could leverage existing [[Cellular data network|cellular data services]] and increased computing power to connect to and use the internet to a greater extent than that of a typical PDA (which were usually reliant on [[Wi-Fi]] and retained limited computing power).
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| rowspan="4" | [[Data storage]] || 8&nbsp;inch floppy disk drive || 14&nbsp;inch hard disk drive || rowspan="4" | The floppy disk drive market has had unusually large changes in market share over the past fifty years. According to Clayton M. Christensen's research, the cause of this instability was a repeating pattern of disruptive innovations.{{sfn|Christensen|1997|p=3-28}} For example, in 1981, the old 8&nbsp;inch drives (used in [[minicomputer|mini computer]]s)  were "vastly superior" to the new 5.25&nbsp;inch drives (used in [[desktop computer]]s).{{sfn|Christensen|1997|p=15}}

The 8&nbsp;inch drives were not affordable for new desktop machines. The simple 5.25&nbsp;inch drive, assembled from technologically inferior "off-the-shelf" components,{{sfn|Christensen|1997|p=15}} was an "innovation" only in the sense that it was new. However, as this market grew and the drives improved, the companies that manufactured them eventually triumphed while many of the existing manufacturers of 8 inch drives fell behind.{{sfn|Christensen|1997|p=3-28}}
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| 5.25&nbsp;inch [[floppy disk]] || 8&nbsp;inch floppy disk
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| 3.5&nbsp;inch floppy disk || 5.25&nbsp;inch floppy disk
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| [[Optical disc]]s and [[USB flash drive]]s || [[Bernoulli drive]] and [[Zip drive]]
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| rowspan="2" | [[Display device|Display]] || [[Light-emitting diode]]s || [[Light bulb]]s || An LED is significantly smaller and less power-consuming than a light bulb. The first optical LEDs were weak, and only useful as [[Light-emitting diode#Indicators and signs|indicator lights]], in particular since they could only produce red and orange light until the invention of blue LEDs in the 1990s. Later models could be used for [[Lighting#Indoor lighting|indoor lighting]], and now several cities are switching to [[LED street light]]s. Incandescent light bulbs are being [[Phase-out of incandescent light bulbs|phased out]] in many countries. [[LED display]]s and [[AMOLED]] are also becoming competitive with LCDs.
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| [[Liquid-crystal display|LCD]] || [[Cathode-ray tube|CRT]] || The first [[liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) were monochromatic and had low resolution. They were used in watches and other handheld devices, but during the early 2000s these (and other planar technologies) largely replaced the dominant [[cathode-ray tube]] (CRT) technology for computer displays and television sets.

CRT sets are very heavy, and the size and weight of the tube limit the maximum screen size to about 38 inches; in contrast, LCD and other flat-panel TVs are available in 40", 50", 60" and even bigger sizes, all of which weigh much less than a CRT set. CRT technologies did improve in the late 1990s with advances like true-flat panels and digital controls; these updates were not enough to prevent CRTs from being displaced by flat-panel LCD displays.
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| rowspan="3" | [[Electronics]] || [[Transistor]] || [[Vacuum tube]] || Vacuum tubes were the dominant [[electronic technology]] up until the 1950s. The first [[transistor]] was invented by [[Bell Labs]] in 1947, but was initially overlooked by [[radio]] companies such as [[RCA]] up until the mid-1950s, when [[Sony]] successfully commercialized the technology with the pocket [[transistor radio]], leading to transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the dominant electronic technology by the late 1950s.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Kozinsky |first1=Sieva |title=Education and the Innovator's Dilemma |url=https://www.wired.com/insights/2014/01/education-innovators-dilemma/ |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=October 14, 2019 |date=January 8, 2014}}</ref>
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| [[Silicon]] || [[Germanium]] || Up until the late 1950s, germanium was the dominant [[semiconductor]] material for [[semiconductor devices]], as it was capable of the highest performance up until then.<ref name="Dabrowski6">{{cite book |last1=Dabrowski |first1=Jarek |last2=Müssig |first2=Hans-Joachim |chapter=6.1. Introduction |title=Silicon Surfaces and Formation of Interfaces: Basic Science in the Industrial World |date=2000 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789810232863 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/siliconsurfacesf0000dabr/page/344 344–346] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlefXcP3tQAC&pg=PA344 |url=https://archive.org/details/siliconsurfacesf0000dabr/page/344 }}</ref><ref name="Heywang">{{cite book |last1=Heywang |first1=W. |last2=Zaininger |first2=K.H. |chapter=2.2. Early history |title=Silicon: Evolution and Future of a Technology |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9783662098974 |pages=26–28 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qxj_CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26}}</ref> 
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| [[MOSFET]] || [[Bipolar junction transistor]] || The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the dominant semiconductor device up until the 1960s.<ref name="triumph">{{cite web |title=The Foundation of Today's Digital World: The Triumph of the MOS Transistor |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6fBEjf9WPw | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/q6fBEjf9WPw| archive-date=December 11, 2021 | url-status=live|publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=July 21, 2019 |date=July 13, 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="computerhistory2018">{{cite web |title=13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/13-sextillion-counting-the-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactured-human-artifact-in-history/ |date=April 2, 2018 |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=July 28, 2019}}</ref> In the 1970s, the MOSFET eventually replaced the BJT as the dominant semiconductor technology.<ref name="triumph"/> 
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| rowspan="3" | [[Manufacturing]]  || [[Hydraulics|Hydraulic]] excavators || [[Wire rope|Cable]]-operated [[excavator]]s || Hydraulic excavators were clearly innovative at the time of introduction but they gained widespread use only decades after. Cable-operated excavators are still used in some cases, mainly for large excavations.{{sfn|Christensen|1997|pp=61–76}}
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| Mini [[steel mill]]s || [[Vertical integration|Vertically integrated]] steel mills || By using mostly locally available scrap and power sources these mills can be cost effective even though not large.{{sfn|Christensen|Raynor|2003|pp=37–39}}
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| [[Plastic]] || Metal, wood, glass etc. || [[Bakelite]] and other early plastics had very limited use – their main advantages were electric insulation and low cost. New forms of plastic had advantages such as transparency, elasticity and combustibility. In the early 21st century, plastics can be used for many household items previously made of metal, wood and glass.
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| rowspan="4" | [[Music]] and [[home video|video]] || [[Digital synthesizer]] || [[Electronic organ]], [[electric piano]] and [[piano]] || Synthesizers were initially low-cost, low-weight alternatives to electronic organs, [[electric piano]]s and acoustic pianos. In the 2010s, synthesizers are significantly cheaper than electric pianos and acoustic pianos, all while offering a much greater range of sound effects and musical sounds.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}
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| [[Phonograph]] || [[Player piano]]
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| Downloadable [[Digital media]] || [[CD]]s, [[DVD]]s || In the 1990s, the [[music industry]] phased out the vinyl record [[single (music)|single]], leaving consumers with no means to purchase individual songs. This market was initially filled by illegal [[peer-to-peer file sharing]] technologies, and then by online retailers such as the [[iTunes Store]] and [[Amazon.com]].

This low end disruption eventually undermined the sales of physical, high-cost recordings such as records, tapes and CDs.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Knopper | first = Steve  | date = 2009  | title = Appetite for self-destruction : the spectacular crash of the record industry in the digital age  | url = https://archive.org/details/appetiteforselfd00knop_0 | url-access = registration | isbn = 978-1-4165-5215-4  | publisher = Free Press  | location = New York  }}</ref>
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| [[Streaming video]] || [[Video rental]] || [[Video on demand]] software can run on many Internet-enabled devices. Since licensing deals between film studios and streaming providers have become standard, this has obviated the need for people to seek rentals at physically separate locations. [[Netflix]], a dominant company in this market, was cited as a significant threat to video stores when it first expanded beyond [[DVD by mail]] offerings. The Netflix co-founders approached rental chain [[Blockbuster LLC]] in 2000 trying to sell their company. Blockbuster declined and ultimately ceased operation ten years later.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703384204575509331302481448|title=Blockbuster to remake itself under creditors|first=Mike|last=Spector|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=September 24, 2010|access-date=August 6, 2017}}</ref>
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| rowspan="2" | [[Photography]] || [[Digital photography]] || Chemical photography || Early digital cameras suffered from low picture quality and resolution and long [[shutter lag]]. Quality and resolution are no longer major issues in the 2010s and shutter lag issues have been largely resolved. The convenience of small memory cards and portable hard drives that hold hundreds or thousands of pictures, as well as the lack of the need to develop these pictures, also helped make digital cameras the market leader. Digital cameras have a high power consumption (but several lightweight battery packs can provide enough power for thousands of pictures).

Cameras for classic photography are stand-alone devices. In the same manner, high-resolution [[digital video]] recording has replaced [[film stock]], except for high-budget motion pictures and fine art.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} The rise of digital cameras led [[Eastman Kodak]], one of the largest camera companies for decades, to declare bankruptcy in 2012. Despite inventing one of the first digital cameras in 1975, Kodak remained invested in traditional film until much later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/this-man-invented-the-digital-camera-in-1975-and-his-bosses-at-kodak-never-let-it-see-the-light-of-day-2015-8|title=Inventor of digital camera says Kodak never let it see the light of day|first=Nathan|last=McAlone|website=Business Insider|date=August 17, 2015|access-date=August 6, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://pradeepsingh.com/kodak-digital-revolution/|title=Kodak and The Digital Revolution - Management of Innovation and Change |first=Pradeep |last=Singh |date=March 5, 2015|work=Pradeep Singh|access-date=November 20, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>
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| [[High-speed photography|High speed]] [[CMOS image sensor]]s || [[Photographic film]] || When first introduced, high speed [[CMOS sensor]]s were less sensitive, had lower resolution, and cameras based on them had less duration (record time). The advantage of rapid setup time, editing in the camera, and nearly-instantaneous review quickly eliminated 16&nbsp;mm high speed film systems. [[CMOS]]-based [[digital cameras]] also require less power (single phase 110&nbsp;V AC and a few amps for high-performance CMOS, direct current 5&nbsp;V or 3.3&nbsp;V and two or three amps for low-power CMOS, vs. 240&nbsp;V single- or three-phase at 20–50&nbsp;A for film cameras). Continuing advances have overtaken 35&nbsp;mm film and are challenging 70&nbsp;mm film applications.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}
<!--- a similar statement may be said about CCD and SLR film photography, but I suggest it go in a separate entry EJH --->
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| rowspan="3" | [[Printing]] || | [[Computer printer]]s || [[Offset printing]] || Offset printing has a high [[overhead cost]], but very low [[unit cost]] compared to computer printers, and superior quality. But as printers, especially [[laser printer]]s, have improved in speed and quality, they have become increasingly useful for creating documents in limited issues.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}
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| [[Desktop publishing]] || Traditional [[publishing]] || Early desktop-publishing systems could not match high-end professional systems in either features or quality, but their impact was felt immediately as they lowered the cost of entry to the publishing business. By the mid-1990s, DTP had largely replaced traditional tools in most prepress operations.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}
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| [[Word processing]] || [[Typewriter]] || The typewriter has been replaced with word processing software that has a wealth of functionality to stylize, copy and facilitate document production.
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| rowspan="7" | [[Transportation]] || [[Steamboat]]s || [[Sailing ship]]s || The first steamships were deployed on inland waters where sailing ships were less effective, instead of on the higher profit margin seagoing routes. Hence steamships originally only competed in traditional shipping lines' "worst" markets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geels |first=Frank W. |date=December 1, 2002 |title=Technological transitions as evolutionary reconfiguration processes: a multi-level perspective and a case-study |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048733302000628 |journal=Research Policy |series=NELSON + WINTER + 20 |volume=31 |issue=8 |pages=1257–1274 |doi=10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00062-8 |issn=0048-7333}}</ref>
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| [[Safety bicycle]]s || [[Penny-farthing]]s || Penny farthings were popular in the 1870s but rendered obsolete by safety bicycles.
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| [[Rail transport]] || [[Canal]]s, [[Horse-drawn vehicle]]s || The introduction of rail transport completely destroyed horse-drawn transport especially for long distances and also freight transport by canal was nearly wiped out. Rail transport led to the introduction of the [[joint-stock company]], [[railway time]] and ultimately [[time zones]] and also opened up new markets for wider fresh produce and perishable goods distribution. In communications, newspapers and postal services were able to offer daily services over long-distances.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Denning |first1=Steve |title=Understanding Disruption: Insights From The History Of Business |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2014/06/24/understanding-disruption-insights-from-the-history-of-business/ |work=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt6wqbk7|jstor=10.1525/j.ctt6wqbk7 |title=The Railway Journey |last1=Schivelbusch |first1=Wolfgang |year=2014 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520282261 }}</ref>
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| [[Effects of the car on societies|Automobiles]], [[mass automobility]] || [[Horse-drawn vehicle]]s, [[rail transport]], [[tram]]s, [[walking]] || At the beginning of the 20th century, rail (including [[streetcars]]) was the fastest and most cost-efficient means of land transportation for goods and passengers in industrialized countries. The first cars, buses and trucks were used for local transportation in [[suburb]]an areas, where they often replaced streetcars and industrial tracks. As highways expanded, medium- and later long-distance transports were relocated to road traffic, and some railways closed down. As rail traffic has a lower [[ton-kilometer]] cost, but a higher investment and operating cost than road traffic, rail is still preferred for large-scale bulk cargo (such as minerals). [[Traffic congestion]] provides a bound on the efficiency of car use, so rail is still used for urban passenger transport.
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| [[High speed rail]] || [[Short-haul flight ban|Short-distance flight]]s || In almost every market where high speed rail with journey times of two hours or less was introduced in competition with an air service, the air service was either greatly reduced within a few years or ceased entirely. Even in markets with longer rail travel times, airlines have reduced the number of flights on offer and passenger numbers have gone down. Examples include the [[Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line]], the [[Cologne–Frankfurt high-speed rail line]] (where no direct flights are available as of 2016) or the Paris–London connection after the opening of [[High Speed 1]]. For medium-distance trips, like between Beijing and Shanghai, the high speed rail and airlines often end up in extremely stiff competition.
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| [[Private jet]]{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}} || [[Supersonic transport]] || The [[Concorde]] aircraft has so far been the only supersonic airliner in extensive commercial traffic. It catered to a small customer segment, which could later afford small private sub-sonic jets. The loss of speed was compensated by flexibility and a more direct routing (i.e. no need to go through a [[airline hub|hub]]). Supersonic flight is also banned above inhabited land, due to [[sonic boom]]s. Concorde service ended in 2003.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2934257.stm |title= Concorde grounded for good |website=BBC News |access-date=May 4, 2012 |date=April 10, 2003}}</ref>
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