Editing Djedkare Isesi (section)

==Reign==
[[File:Petrie Statue of Djedkare from Abydos.png|thumb|right|Statue of Djedkare from the temple of Osiris in Abydos{{sfn|Petrie|Weigall|Saba|1902|p=28|loc=plate LV, num 2}}]]

The reign of Djedkare heralded a new period in the history of the Old Kingdom.{{sfn|Brovarski|2001|p=23}}{{sfn|Andrassy|2008|p=38}} First, he did not build a [[Egyptian sun temple|sun temple]], as his predecessors had done since the time of [[Userkaf]], some 80 years earlier.{{efn|group=note|With the possible exception of Shepseskare who might not have the time required to start one.}}{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=339}}{{sfn|Malek|2000|p=99}} This may be a result of the increased prominence of [[Osiris]] compared with the sun god [[Ra]] during the late Fifth Dynasty.{{sfn|Verner|2001b|p=589}}{{sfn|Dorman|2015}}{{sfn|Kanawati|2003|p=147}}{{sfn|Griffiths|1966|p=41}} The rise of Osiris corresponds to changes in the role of the king with respect to the wider Egyptian society. In particular, the king loses his role as the sole guarantor of the afterlife, which now becomes available beyond the immediate royal circle. These changes demythologise the king's position and, as the Egyptologist Hans Goedicke writes, make him fully human yet still socially dominant.{{sfn|Goedicke|2000|pp=408–409 & footnote 55}}
The importance of the cult of Osiris becomes manifest when the [[Pyramid Texts]] of the [[pyramid of Unas]] are inscribed a few decades later.{{sfn|Dorman|2015}}{{sfn|Tyldesley|2005|p=240}} In this context, it is perhaps noteworthy that the only{{sfn|Verner|1985|p=270}} known statue of Djedkare was discovered in the ruins of the temple of Osiris, in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]].{{sfn|Petrie|Weigall|Saba|1902|p=28|loc=plate LV, num 2}} Another manifestation of the winds of change{{sfn|Malek|2000|p=102}} during Djedkare's time on the throne is the confirmation of the relocation of the royal necropolis from Abusir, where it had been since the reign of [[Sahure]], to Saqqara, where Menkauhor Kaiu, Djedkare and his successor, Unas, built their pyramids. Abusir may have become overcrowded by the time of Menkauhor's accession{{sfn|Verner|Callender|Strouhal|2002|p=105}} and the capital may have been shifted south to Saqqara, along with the royal necropolis, around the same time.{{sfn|Goelet|1999|p=87}} The abandonment of Abusir as a royal necropolis and the termination of sun temple building are possibly related, given the close association between the two since the reign of Userkaf.{{sfn|Verner|Zemina|1994|p=111–112}}
[[File:Berlin 122009 037a.jpg|thumb|Main relief from the false door of Manefer, depicting the deceased with his name and titles in front of him. Time of Djedkare Isesi - 5th dynasty of Egypt - Egyptian museum of Berlin]]

===Domestic reforms===
[[File:Statuevizir095.jpg|thumb|right|Two statues of Ptahhotep, a [[vizier]] during Djedkare's reign{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=301}}]]

During his reign Djedkare effected significant reforms of the state administration and priesthood, in particular that pertaining to the funerary cults{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=307 & 339}} in the necropolis of Abusir.{{efn|group=note|The abandonment of Abusir as the royal necropolis meant that Djedkare had to strictly regulate its activities so as to ensure the proper continuation of the funerary cults taking place there, which explains in large part the administrative content of the Abusir papyri.{{sfn|Verner|Zemina|1994|p=164}}}}{{sfn|Verner|Zemina|1994|p=164}}
These evolutions are witnessed by changes in priestly titles and more broadly, in the system of ranking titles of high officials, which was modified for the first time in its existence.{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=339}} For example, the priesthood of the royal pyramids was reorganized,{{sfn|Verner|2001b|p=589}} with Djedkare possibly changing the titles and functions of the priests from "priest of king" to "priest of the pyramid",{{sfn|Baer|1960|p=297}} although this change may have happened earlier, under Nyuserre Ini.{{sfn|Baud|1999a|p=23}}
Princes of royal blood could once more hold administrative titles,{{efn|group=note|The Egyptologist Nigel Strudwick illustrates this novelty with the cases of Isesi-ankh and Kaemtjenent, who both bore the title of "king's son" as well as a number of administrative titles such as "overseer of all the works of the king" and "seal bearer of the god".{{sfn|Baud|1999b|p=421}} The Egyptologists Michel Baud and Bettina Schmitz have argued that the title of "king's son" here does not denote a true filiation and was only honorary, at least in the case of Isesi-ankh.{{sfn|Baud|1999b|p=422}}{{sfn|Schmitz|1976|p= 88 & 90}} More generally Baud and Schmitz consider that true princes of blood were qualified of ''smsw [z3 nswt]'' for "eldest [king's son]" and remained excluded from holding administrative offices.{{sfn|Baud|1999a|p=328}}}} a prerogative they had lost during the early Fifth Dynasty.{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=339}} At the same time, viziers could now hold the prestigious titles of ''Iry-pat''{{sfn|Andrassy|2008|p=38}} and ''[[Haty-a]]''{{sfn|Baud|1999a|p=328}} and, as "overseer of the royal scribes", became the head of the scribal administration.{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=340}} At least one vizier, [[Seshemnefer (III)|Seshemnefer III]], even bore the title of "king's son of his body", one of the most distinguished titles at the time and normally reserved to princes of royal blood. Yet neither Seshemnefer III's father nor his mother seems to have belonged to the royal family.{{sfn|Kanawati|2003|p=154}} For the period spanning the reign of Djedkare until that of Teti, viziers were furthermore responsible for the weaponry of the state, both for military and other purposes.{{sfn|Kanawati|2003|p=154}} Following the reforms undertaken by Djedkare, three viziers would be in office at the same time:{{sfn|Trigger|2003|p=211}} two in the [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphite]] region and a Southern one, the "governor of Upper Egypt",{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=339}} with a seat at Abydos.{{sfn|Verner|2001b|p=589}}{{sfn|Altenmüller|2001|p=600}} In total six viziers were appointed during Djedkare's reign.{{efn|group=note|These are [[Ptahhotep Desher]], Seshemnefer III, [[Ptahhotep]], [[Rashepses]], another [[Ptahhotep (Djedkare)|Ptahhotep]], and Senedjemib Inti.{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=301}}}}{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=301}}

Lower ranking officials lost power during the late Fifth Dynasty and were frequently limited to holding only one high title,{{sfn|Trigger|2003|p=211}} a departure from the preceding period.{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=339}} Such functions as "overseer of the granary" and "overseer of the treasury" disappear from the record some time between Djedkare's reign and that of [[Teti]],{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=339}} while men of lower status became head of the legal administration.{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=340}} Consequently, the viziers concentrated more power than before while lower echelons of the state administration were reduced.{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=340}} At the same time, the size of the provincial administration was increased, and it also became more autonomous from the central government.{{sfn|Altenmüller|2001|p=600}} In particular, the [[nomarch]]s were responsible in their provinces for performing works hitherto conducted by Memphite officials.{{sfn|Strudwick|1985|p=340}}

===Building activities===
The main building activity undertaken during the reign of Djedkare was the construction of his pyramid complex in Saqqara. Djedkare also either completed or undertook restoration works in the funerary complex of Nyuserre Ini in Abusir, as indicated by a now damaged inscription,{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=94}} which must have detailed Djedkare's activities on the site.{{efn|group=note|The block inscribed with the text relating Djedkare's works in the temple of Nyuserre reads "Horus Djedkhau, the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, the Two Ladies Djedkhau, the Golden Horus Djed, Djedkare. For the king of Upper and Lower Egypt [Nyuse]rre he set up a monument&nbsp;...".{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=94}} It is now in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin, catalog No. 17933.{{sfn|Borchardt|1907|pp=157–158|loc=fig. 131}}}}{{sfn|Morales|2006|p=317}} Further building works took place in Abusir during the second half of Djedkare's reign following the curious{{sfn|Verner|Zemina|1994|p=86}} decision by members of the royal family to be buried there rather than next to Djedkare's pyramid in Saqqara. A group of mastabas was thus constructed for princess Kekheretnebti and her daughter Tisethor, princess Hedjetnebu, the courtiers Mernefu and Idu, who was buried with his wife Khenit, and prince Neserkauhor.{{sfn|Verner|Callender|Strouhal|2002|p=105}}{{sfn|Verner|Zemina|1994|p=86}}

Djedkare also undertook building activities in relation with his "sed" festival as indicated by a decree that he sent to his vizier Senedjemib Inti on the year of the 16th cattle count,{{sfn|Eichler|1991|p=146}} praising him for his work.{{sfn|Brovarski|2001|p=97|loc=see also footnote e, p. 99}} The decree mentions the construction of a broad rectangular court{{sfn|Brovarski|2001|p=98}} or artificial lake{{sfn|Breasted|1962|pp=121–123|loc=texts 268 & 273}}{{sfn|Roccati|1982|loc=text 93}} for the jubilee of the king, some 1,000 [[Cubit#Ancient Egyptian royal cubit|cubits]] long and 400 cubits wide,{{sfn|Brovarski|2001|p=97|loc=see also footnote e, p. 99}} amounting to c. {{convert|525|x|231|m|ft|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Brovarski|2001|p=98|loc=footnote b}}{{sfn|Trigger|2003|p=134}} The court was located within the precincts of a palace built for the ceremonies of the "sed" festival, which was probably located in the vicinity of his pyramid.{{efn|group=note|The name of the palace mentioned in the decree has been the subject of varying translations owing to the damaged state of the inscription. For Brovarski and Sethe the palace is simply called the "jubilee palace" in the decree,{{sfn|Brovarski|2001|p=99|loc=Footnote e}} while others such as Breasted,{{sfn|Breasted|1962|loc=text 273}} Roccati,{{sfn|Roccati|1982|p=126}} and Trigger{{sfn|Trigger|2003|p=134}} have read the palace name as "lotus-blossom of Isesi" or "lotus of Isesi" (Ancient Egyptian ''Nehbet''). Wente reads the "jubilee palace of Lotus-of-Izezi".{{sfn|Wente|1990|p=18}}}}{{sfn|Trigger|2003|p=134}} Another decree addressed to Senedjemib Inti and later inscribed on the walls of his mastaba records the decoration of a chapel of [[Hathor]] in the palace of the king. This chapel was most likely built during his reign.{{sfn|Brovarski|2001|p=92|loc=see also footnote d}}

Djedkare may have left some of his monuments unfinished at his death, as suggested by several relief-bearing blocks inscribed with his name and which were found reused in the pyramid of king Unas. Their original setting remains unknown.{{sfn|Labrousse|Lauer|Leclant|1977|pp=125–128}} A reused granite block with the king's name was also found at the pyramid of [[Amenemhat I]] at [[Lisht]].{{sfn|Jánosi|2016|pp=18-19 pls. 8b-d, 9}}

===Activities outside Egypt===
[[File:Relief of Djedkare Isesi Wadi Maghara.png|thumb|right|upright|Drawing by [[Karl Richard Lepsius]] of a relief of Djedkare, Wadi Maghara{{sfn|Lepsius|Denkmäler II|p=2 & 39}}]]

====Expeditions to mines and quarries====
Three or four{{efn|group=note|It is unclear whether two of the inscribed texts originate from the same damaged inscription or have always been part of two different inscriptions.{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|pp=137–138|loc=Texts C and D}}}} rock inscriptions dating to Djedkare's reign have been found in the [[Wadi Maghareh]] in Sinai, where mines of copper and semi-precious stones were exploited throughout the Old Kingdom, from the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth]] until the [[Sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Sixth Dynasty]].{{sfn|Mumford|1999|pp=1071–1072}} These inscriptions record three expeditions sent to look for [[turquoise]]: the earliest one, dated to the third{{sfn|Mumford|1999|p=1072}} or fourth{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=137}} [[Cattle count (Egypt)|cattle count]]–possibly corresponding to the sixth or eighth year of Dejdkare's reign–explicitly recalls the arrival of the mining party to the "hills of the turquoise"{{efn|group=note|Also translated as "terraces of turquoise" from the Egyptian ''ḫtjw mfk3t''.{{sfn|Tallet|2012|p=151}}}} after being given "divine authority for the finding of semi-precious stones in the writing of the god himself, [as was enacted] in the broad court of the [[Userkaf#Sun temple|temple Nekhenre]]".{{sfn|Mumford|1999|p=1072}}{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=137}} This sentence could indicate the earliest known record of an oracular [[divination]] undertaken in order to ensure the success of the expedition prior to its departure, Nekhenre being the sun temple of Userkaf.{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=137}}
Another inscription dating to the year of the ninth cattle count–possibly Djedkare's 18th year on the throne&nbsp;– shows the king "subduing all foreign lands. Smiting the chief of the foreign land".{{sfn|Mumford|1999|p=1072}}{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=137}} The expedition that left this inscription comprised over 1400 men and administration officials.{{sfn|Gardiner|Peet|Černý|1955|loc=Pl. IX num. 19}}{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=138}} Some Egyptologists have proposed that these men were also sent to mine copper.{{sfn|Valbelle|Bonnet|1996|p=3}}{{sfn|Allen et al.|1999|p=177}}

These expeditions departed Egypt from the port of [[Ain Sukhna]], on the western shore of the [[Gulf of Suez]], as revealed by papyri and seals bearing Djedkare's name found on the site.{{sfn|Tallet|2012|p=20}}{{sfn|Tallet|2012|p=150}} The port comprised large galleries carved into the sandstone serving as living quarters and storage places.{{sfn|Tallet|2012|p=150}} The wall of one such gallery was inscribed with a text mentioning yet another expedition to the hills of turquoise in the year of the seventh cattle count–possibly Djedkare's 14th year on the throne.{{sfn|Tallet|2012|p=151}}{{sfn|Tallet|2010|p=21}} In early 2018, more than 220 clay seals bearing the serekh of Djedkare were uncovered in [[Edfu#Ancient Tell Edfu|Tell Edfu]] in the south of Upper Egypt. These seals have been found in close association with copper ore, Nubian pottery, the remains of two large buildings and a settlement. Edfu, called Behdet by the ancient Egyptians, was likely the place of departure for the mining expeditions sent to the Eastern desert and the Red Sea during Djedkare's reign. These expeditions were undertaken by a special group of prospectors, called the ''sementiu'', who were under the orders of an administration official sent by the king from Memphis to Edfu.{{sfn|Tell Edfu project|2018}}

[[File:2414-2375 050 PHARAOHS OF EGYPT- Gold Seal of Office. Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5, reign of DJEDKARE ISESI. Museum of Fine Arts Boston ©Hans Ollermann.jpg|thumb|upright|Gold [[cylinder seal]] bearing the names of Djedkare and Menkauhor Kaiu, purportedly from Anatolia{{sfn|Seal of office 68.115, BMFA|2015}}]]
South of Egypt, Djedkare dispatched at least one expedition to the [[diorite]] quarries located {{convert|65|km|mi|abbr=on}} north-west of [[Abu Simbel]].{{efn|group=note|The rock exploited in these quarries actually comprises two varieties of [[gneiss]], the word "diorite" being misused by Egyptologists to designate these.{{sfn|Harrell|2001|p=395}}}}{{sfn|Grimal|1992|p=79}} Djedkare was not the first king to do so, as these quarries were already exploited during the Fourth Dynasty and continued to be so during the Sixth Dynasty and later, in the Middle Kingdom period ({{circa|2055 BC|1650 BC}}).{{sfn|Harrell|2001|p=395}}

Djedkare probably also exploited gold mines in the [[Eastern Desert]] and in [[Nubia]]: indeed, the earliest mention of the "land of gold"&nbsp;– an Ancient Egyptian term for Nubia{{efn|group=note|Gold is ''Nub'' in Ancient Egyptian, and the "land of gold" may have given rise to the modern word "Nubia"{{sfn|"Nubia"|Catholic Encyclopedia|2016}}}}&nbsp;– is found in an inscription from the mortuary temple of Djedkare.{{sfn|Klemm|Klemm|2013|p=604}}

====Trade relations====
Egypt entertained continuing trade relations with the Levant during Djedkare's reign, possibly as far north as [[Anatolia]]. A gold [[cylinder seal]] bearing the [[serekh]] of Djedkare together with the cartouche of Menkauhor Kaiu is now on display at the [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]].{{efn|group=note|The golden seal has the catalog number 68.115.{{sfn|Seal of office 68.115, BMFA|2015}}}}{{sfn|Seal of office 68.115, BMFA|2015}} The seal, whose gold may originate from the [[Pactolus|Pactolus river]] valley in western Anatolia,{{sfn|Young|1972|pp=11–13}} could attest to wide-ranging trade-contacts during the later Fifth Dynasty,{{sfn|Altenmüller|2001|p=600}}{{sfn|Vermeule|Stone|Vermeule|1970|p=34}} but its provenance remains unverifiable.{{efn|group=note|The provenance of the seal is usually believed to be a tomb in a yet undiscovered site along the Eastern Mediterranean coast.{{sfn|Vermeule|Stone|Vermeule|1970|p=37}} The archaeologist [[Karin Sowada]] doubts the authenticity of the seal.{{sfn|Sowada|Grave|2009|p=146, footnote 89}}}}{{sfn|Schulman|1979|p=86}}

Trade contacts with [[Byblos]], on the coast of modern-day [[Lebanon]], are suggested by a fragmentary [[Stone vessels in Ancient Egypt|stone vessel]] unearthed in the city and bearing the inscription "King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Djedkare [living] forever".{{sfn|Nelson|1934|loc=pl. III no. 1, see [http://almashriq.hiof.no/ddc/projects/archaeology/berytus-back/berytus01/plateiii.html here] and [http://almashriq.hiof.no/ddc/projects/archaeology/berytus-back/berytus01/20.html there]}}{{sfn|Porter|Moss|Burney|1951|p=390}} A biographical inscription discovered in the tomb of Iny, a Sixth Dynasty official, provides further evidence for an Egyptian expedition to Byblos during Djedkare's reign.{{sfn|Verner|2001b|p=590}} Iny's inscription relates his travels to procure [[lapis lazuli]] and [[lead]] or [[tin]]{{sfn|Marcolin|2006|p=297–298|loc=footnote f}} for king Merenre, but starts by recounting what must have been similar events taking place under Djedkare.{{sfn|Marcolin|2006|p=293}}

To the south of Egypt, Djedkare also sent an expedition to the fabled [[Land of Punt]]{{sfn|Grimal|1992|p=79}} to procure the myrrh used as incense in the Egyptian temples.{{sfn|Hayes|1978|p=67}} The expedition to Punt is referred to in the letter from [[Pepi II Neferkare]] to Harkuf some 100 years later. Harkuf had reported that he would bring back a "dwarf of the god's dancers from the land of the horizon dwellers". Pepi mentions that the god's sealbearer Werdjededkhnum had returned from Punt with a dwarf during the reign of Djedkare and had been richly rewarded. The decree mentions that "My Majesty will do for you something greater than what was done for the god's sealbearer Werdjededkhnum in the reign of Isesi, reflecting my majesty's yearning to see this dwarf".{{sfn|Wente|1990|pp=20–21}}
[[File:Petrie Relief of Inti from Dishasha.png|thumb|Relief from the tomb of Inti showing a scene of battle or siege{{sfn|Petrie|1898|loc=plate IV}}]]
Djedkare's expedition to Punt is also mentioned in a contemporaneous [[Graffiti|graffito]] found in Tumas, a locality of Lower Nubia some {{convert|150|km|mi|abbr=on}} south of [[Aswan]],{{sfn|Baker|2008|p=84}} where Isesi's cartouche was discovered.{{sfn|Weigall|1907|p=108|loc=Pl. LVIII}}

====Warfare====
Not all relations between Egypt and its neighbors were peaceful during Djedkare's reign. In particular, one of the earliest known depictions of a battle or a city being besieged{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=371}} is found in the tomb of Inti, an official from the [[Nome (Egypt)#Upper Egypt|21st nome of Upper Egypt]], who lived during the late Fifth Dynasty.{{sfn|Verner|2001b|p=590}}{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=371}} The scene shows Egyptian soldiers scaling the walls of a Near Eastern fortress on ladders.{{sfn|Baker|2008|p=84}}{{sfn|Kanawati|McFarlane|1993|pp=26–27|loc=pl. 2}} More generally, ancient Egyptians seem to have regularly organised punitive raids in [[Canaan]] during the later Old Kingdom period but did not attempt to establish a permanent dominion there.{{sfn|Redford|1992|pp=53–54}}