Editing Gilbertese language (section)

== Grammar ==
Gilbertese has a basic [[verb–object–subject word order]] (VOS).

=== Nouns===
Gilbertese lacks a morphological noun-marker system. This means that—by itself—a noun cannot be identified as such. However, singular nouns can be distinguished from other words, as they are preceded by the article "''{{Lang|gil|te}}''". However, not all singular nouns can take the article. These include names of people and places, words for cardinal directions, and other specific nouns.

Any noun can be formed from a verb or an adjective by preceding it with the article "''{{Lang|gil|te}}''".

*''{{Lang|gil|nako}}'' (to go)
*''{{Lang|gil|te nako}}'' (the going)
*''{{Lang|gil|uraura}}'' (red)
*''{{Lang|gil|te uraura}}'' (the redness)

Nouns can be marked for possession (by person and number). Plurality is only marked in some nouns by lengthening the first vowel.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kiribati (Gilbertese): Grammar Handbook |last=Trussel |first=Stephen |publisher=Vermont Peace Corps Language Handbook Series |year=1979 |location=The Experiment Press |pages=85–86 |chapter=Lesson 13 |chapter-url=https://www.trussel.com/kir/lessons/gramlesson13.pdf}}</ref> Even then, the singular form might be used—despite plural referents—if no other indicators of their plurality are present.

*''{{Lang|gil|te boki}}'' (book)
*''{{Lang|gil|booki}}'' (books)

There is no obligatory marked gender. Sex or gender can be marked by adding ''{{Lang|gil|mmwaane}}'' (male) or ''{{Lang|gil|aiine}}'' (female) to the noun.

*''{{Lang|gil|te moa}}'' (chicken)
*''{{Lang|gil|te moa mmwaane}}'' (rooster) (writing ''{{Lang|gil|mwane}}'' is more usual)
*''{{Lang|gil|te moa aiine}}'' (hen) (writing ''{{Lang|gil|aine}}'' is more usual)
* ''{{Lang|gil|tariu}}''<ref>with possessive suffix -u, my.</ref> (my brother or my sister, if he or she has the same sex as the speaker)
* ''{{Lang|gil|maneu}}''<ref>with the same possessive suffix.</ref> (my brother or my sister, if he or she has a different sex from the speaker)

For human nouns, the linker 'n' may be used.

*''{{Lang|gil|ataei}}'' (child)
*''{{Lang|gil|ataeinimmwaane}}'' (boy)
*''{{Lang|gil|ataeinnaiine}}'' (girl)

[[Agent noun|'''Agent nouns''']] can be created with the particle ''{{Lang|gil|tia}}'' (singular) or ''{{Lang|gil|taan(i)}}'' (plural).{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

In Gilbertese, nouns can be classified as either '''animate''' or '''inanimate'''. The category of animate nouns includes humans and most animals, whereas inanimate nouns refer to all other entities.

'''Possession''', when the possessor is inanimate, is marked with the "n" clitic. In writing, it may be joined with the previous word, or written separately. In cases where the "n" marker would be otherwise incompatible with the language's phonotactics, one might use "in" or "ni" instead. In phrases where the possessor is animate, a special possessive pronoun needs to be employed (see [[Gilbertese language#Pronouns|Pronouns]]).

Nouns can also be classified as '''alienable''' or '''inalienable'''. Inalienable nouns include, among others, parts of the body, family, and feelings. Words which are newly introduced into the language are never considered to be inalienable. The meanings of certain words may vary according to whether or not they are considered alienable.

Adjectives can also be formed from nouns by '''reduplication''' with the meaning of "abundant in", e.g., {{Lang|gil|karau}} ("rain"), {{Lang|gil|kakarau}} ("rainy").

=== Articles ===
There are two articles used in Gilbertese:
{| class="wikitable"
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|te
|taian
|}

Neither of them implies definiteness, therefore both can be translated as "a(n)" and "the".

When preceding collective nouns or names of substances, "''{{Lang|gil|te}}''" can be translated as "some." A limited set of nouns, typically referring to unique entities, dispense with ''{{Lang|gil|te}}''. This includes words like ''{{Lang|gil|taai}}'' ''“''sun”, ''{{Lang|gil|karawa}}'' “sky”, ''{{Lang|gil|taari/marawa}}'' “sea”, among others. Interestingly, ''{{Lang|gil|Te Atua}}'', “God”, is an exception. The article ''{{Lang|gil|te}}'' also acts as a [[Nominalization|nominalizer]], transforming adjectives into nouns. While ''{{Lang|gil|te}}'' marks singular nouns, the language possesses a plural article ''{{Lang|gil|taian}}''. However, its use is restricted to countable nouns inherently implying plurality. Collective nouns typically don't take ''{{Lang|gil|taian}}''. In certain situations, when plurality is evident from surrounding words, ''{{Lang|gil|taian}}'' can be omitted.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Personal articles
!
!Masculine
!Feminine
|-
!Personal article
|te (tem, ten, teng) — Na Nan Nang form could be used in [[Butaritari]] and [[Makin (atoll)|Makin]]
|nei
|}

The personal articles are used before personal names. The masculine form is '<nowiki/>''{{Lang|gil|te}}''<nowiki/>' before names beginning with <i, u, w, b', ng>, '<nowiki/>''{{Lang|gil|tem}}''<nowiki/>' before <b, m>, '<nowiki/>''{{Lang|gil|ten}}''<nowiki/>' before <a, e, o, n, r, t> and '''{{Lang|gil|teng}}''<nowiki/>' before <k, (ng)>.

=== Pronouns ===
Pronouns have different forms according to case: nominative (subject), accusative (object), emphatic (vocatives, adjunct pronouns), genitive (possessives).

{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! colspan="2" |
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Emphatic
! Genitive
! Possessive<br />suffixes
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st<br />person
! <small>singular</small>
| i, n
| -ai
| ngai
| au
| -u
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| ti
| -ira
| ngaira
| ara
| -ra
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd<br />person
! <small>singular</small>
| ko
| -ko
| ngkoe
| am
| -m
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| kam
| -ngkamii
| ngkamii
| amii
| -mii
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd<br />person
! <small>singular</small>
| e
| -a
| ngaia
| ana
| -na/n
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| a
| -ia/i
| ngaiia
| aia
| -ia
|}

=== Demonstratives ===
The Gilbertese language employs a system of demonstratives to indicate the spatial proximity of the referent to the speaker. These demonstratives are postnominal, meaning they follow the noun they modify.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Trussel |first=Stephen |title=Kiribati (Gilbertese): Grammar Handbook |publisher=Vermont Peace Corps Language Handbook Series |year=1979 |location=The Experiment Press |pages=126–129 |chapter=Lesson 19 |chapter-url=https://www.trussel.com/kir/lessons/gramlesson19.pdf}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Basic
! colspan="2" |Masculine
!Feminine
!Human
! colspan="2" |Neuter
! colspan="2" |Translation
|-
! <small>singular</small> || <small>plural</small>
! <small>singular</small> || <small>plural</small>
! <small>singular</small> || <small>plural</small>
! <small>singular</small> || <small>plural</small>
!<small>singular</small>
!<small>plural</small>
|-
!Proximal
|''aei''
|''aikai''
|''teuaaei''
|''uaakai''
|''neiei''
|''naakai''
|''te baei''
|''baikai''
|“this” (this here, near me)
|“these”
|-
!Medial
|''anne''
|''akanne''
|''teuaanne''
|''uakanne''
|''neienne''
|''naakanne''
|''te baenne''
|''baikanne''
|“that” (near you but far from me)
|“those”
|-
!Distal
|''arei''
|''akekei''
|''teuaarei''
|''uaakekei''
|''neierei''
|''naakekei''
|''te baerei''
|''baikekei''
|“that” (far away from both of us)
|“those”
|}

The feminine demonstrative has no plural form, as opposed to the masculine, and the human plural encapsulates groups of mixed gender.

Adverbial pronouns<ref name=":0" /> also have a three-way distinction of distance: [[Demonstrative#Contrasts in demonstrative systems|proximal, medial and distal]].
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |Relative
! colspan="2" |Demonstrative
|-
!Time
!Place
|-
!Proximal
|''ngkai, ngkae'' (“now that”)
|''ngkai'' (“now”)
|''ikai'' (“here”)
|-
!Medial
|''ngkana'' (future “when/if”)
|''ngkanne'' (future “then”)
|''ikanne'' (“there,” near you)
|-
!Distal
|''ngke'' (past “when/if”)
|''ngkekei'' (past “then”)
|''ikekei'' (“there,” far from us)
|}
''{{Lang|gil|Ngke}}'' is used for hypothetical scenarios that would have an effect today, have they changed in the past. ''{{Lang|gil|Ngkana}}'' is used for situations whereof the outcome or truth is not yet known.

=== Adjectives ===
While they share many similarities with intransitive verbs, there are a few patterns that can be observed among adjectives. Many adjectives, such a''s'' {{Lang|gil|mainaina}} (“white”), contain a repeated element. While some non-reduplicated adjectives exist, reduplication appears to be dominant.

Nouns typically lengthen their first vowel to indicate plural. Conversely, adjectives tend to shorten their first vowel for pluralization (e.g., {{Lang|gil|anaanau}} (long - singular) becomes ''{{Lang|gil|ananau}}'' (long - plural)).

Gilbertese employs distinct strategies for forming comparative and superlative constructions. Comparatives are relatively straightforward, achieved by adding the adverb ''{{Lang|gil|riki}}'' (“more”) after the adjective (e.g., ''{{Lang|gil|ririeta}}'' (“high”) becomes ''{{Lang|gil|ririeta riki}}'' (“higher”)). Expressing “better than” requires the preposition ''{{Lang|gil|nakon}}'' (“than”) along with a construction that compares the noun-like qualities derived from the adjectives:

{{Interlinear|E aki bootau an aakoi tar im.||You are not as kind as your brother. (lit. ''Your kindness is not equal to that of your brother.'')
| indent = 3
}}Superlatives are formed with the intensifier ''{{Lang|gil|moan}}'' and the article ''{{Lang|gil|te}}'' preceding the adjective. For example, ''{{Lang|gil|raoiroi}}'' (“good”) becomes ''{{Lang|gil|moan te raoiroi}}'' (“the best”).

=== Verbs ===
Verbs do not conjugate according to person, number, tense, aspect or mood.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kiribati (Gilbertese): Grammar Handbook |last=Trussel |first=Stephen |publisher=Vermont Peace Corps Language Handbook Series |year=1979 |location=The Experiment Press |pages=203–208 |chapter=Lesson 31 |chapter-url=https://www.trussel.com/kir/lessons/gramlesson31.pdf}}</ref> These verbal categories are indicated by [[Grammatical particle|particles]]. Nonetheless,  a passive suffix ''{{Lang|gil|-aki}}'' is used as in:

* ''{{Lang|gil|E kabooa te raiti}}'' 	He bought the rice.
* ''{{Lang|gil|E kabooaki te raiti}}'' 	The rice was bought (by him).

Any adjective can also be an intransitive verb. Transitive verbs can be formed by the circumfix ''{{Lang|gil|ka- (...) -a}}'' creating a causative verb, e.g. "''{{Lang|gil|uraura}}''" (to be red) becomes "''{{Lang|gil|kaurauraa}}''" (to redden). Tense is marked by adverbs. However, the default interpretation of the unmarked (by adverbs) verb is a past tense. Below is a list of verbal particles:<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kiribati (Gilbertese): Grammar Handbook |last=Trussel |first=Stephen |publisher=Vermont Peace Corps Language Handbook Series |year=1979 |location=The Experiment Press |pages=239–245 |chapter=Lesson 37 |chapter-url=https://www.trussel.com/kir/lessons/gramlesson37.pdf}}</ref>

* ''{{Lang|gil|a}}'' (immediate, incompleted and indeterminate)
* ''{{Lang|gil|tabe n(i)}}'' (progressive)
* ''{{Lang|gil|nang(i)}}'' (prospective future)
* ''{{Lang|gil|na}}'' (general future)
* ''{{Lang|gil|a tib'a}}'' (immediate past)
* ''{{Lang|gil|a tia n(i)}}'' (past perfect)

==== Copula verbs ====
There are no verbs corresponding to English "to be", so a stative verb must be used or a zero copula strategy:

{{interlinear|indent=3
|Te tia mmwakuri teuaarei.|c1= (mwakuri or even makuri are usual forms)
|A workman that man.
|That man is a workman.}}

There is also a locative copula verb "mena":

{{interlinear|indent=3
|E mena iaon te taibora te booro.
|The ball is on the table}}

==== Existential verb ====
There is no corresponding verb to "to have", instead an existential verb meaning "there to be" is used - {{Lang|gil|iai}}.

==== Reduplication ====
In verbs, reduplication is used to mark aspect.

* Partial reduplication marks the habitual aspect for example "{{Lang|gil|nako}}" (to go) and "{{Lang|gil|naanako}}" (to usually go).
* Full reduplication shows the continuative aspect, e.g. "{{Lang|gil|koro}}" (to cut), "{{Lang|gil|korokoro}}" (to continually cut).
* Mixed: "{{Lang|gil|kiba}}" (to jump), "{{Lang|gil|kiikiba}}" (to usually jump), "{{Lang|gil|kibakiba}}" (to continually jump, to be excited), "{{Lang|gil|kikibakiba}}" (to jump on regular occasions).

==== Negation ====
The main negator is the particle "{{Lang|gil|aki}}" placed after the pronoun and before the verb. The negator "{{Lang|gil|aikoa}}" is for counterexpected situations.

''{{Lang|gil|Ko aki taetae}}'': You don't speak.

=== Numerals ===
Gilbertese uses [[classifier (linguistics)|classifiers]] for counting with numerals like Asian languages (Chinese, Vietnamese, etc.). These classifiers are suffixes to the numerals: {{Lang|gil|-ua}} (general, for objects), {{Lang|gil|-man}} (animate beings), {{Lang|gil|-kai}} (plants, land, fish hooks), {{Lang|gil|-ai}} (fish, elongated objects), {{Lang|gil|-waa}} (transportation), {{Lang|gil|-baa}} (leaves, flat objects) among many others. It is a decimal system with {{Lang|gil|-bwi}} as a "10-counting" suffix. Zero ("{{Lang|gil|akea}}") is just the word for 'nothing'.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kiribati (Gilbertese): Grammar Handbook |last=Trussel |first=Stephen |publisher=Vermont Peace Corps Language Handbook Series |year=1979 |location=The Experiment Press |pages=103–109 |chapter=Lesson 16 |chapter-url=https://www.trussel.com/kir/lessons/gramlesson16.pdf}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Root
!With -ua classifier
|-
|0
|{{lang|gil|akea|italic=no}}
| -
|-
|1
|{{lang|gil|te|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|teuana|italic=no}}
|-
|2
|{{lang|gil|uo/ua|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|uoua|italic=no}}
|-
|3
|{{lang|gil|ten(i)|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|tenua|italic=no}}<ref>The script teniua is also usual.</ref>
|-
|4
|{{lang|gil|a|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|aua|italic=no}}
|-
|5
|{{lang|gil|nima|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|nimaua|italic=no}}
|-
|6
|{{lang|gil|ono|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|onoua|italic=no}}
|-
|7
|{{lang|gil|it(i)|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|itiua|italic=no}}
|-
|8
|{{lang|gil|wan(i)|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|waniua|italic=no}}
|-
|9
|{{lang|gil|ruai|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|ruaiua|italic=no}}
|-
|10
|{{lang|gil|te|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|tebwina|italic=no}}
|}

=== Conjunctions ===
Multiple nouns may be joined with either {{Lang|gil|ao}} (“and”) or {{Lang|gil|ma}} (“and; with”). To join adjectives or verb, one may use {{Lang|gil|man}}. The conjunction {{Lang|gil|ke}} (“or”) can be used with any part of speech.

In [[Dependent clause|subordinate clauses]], the main clause usually comes first, with an appropriate conjunction in-between the two.