Editing Head of state (section)

==Roles==
{{Primary sources section|date=October 2019}}
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Head of state is the highest-ranking constitutional position in a sovereign state. A head of state has some or all of the roles listed below, often depending on the constitutional category (above), and does not necessarily regularly exercise the most power or influence of governance. There is usually a formal public ceremony when a person becomes head of state, or some time after. This may be the swearing in at the [[inauguration]] of a president of a republic, or the [[coronation]] of a monarch.

===Symbolic role===
One of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living [[national symbol]] of the state; in hereditary monarchies this extends to the monarch being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, the [[Monarchy of Canada|Canadian monarch]] is described by the government as being the [[Monarchy of Canada#Personification of the Canadian state|personification of the Canadian state]] and is described by the [[Department of Canadian Heritage]] as the "personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians".<ref name=Heritage>{{cite web|url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/eng/1363187221658|title=The Crown in Canada|date=13 December 2013 |access-date=31 August 2014|publisher=[[Department of Canadian Heritage]]|format=PDF|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808051404/http://www.pch.gc.ca/eng/1363187221658|archive-date=8 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchAndCommonwealth/Canada/TheQueensroleinCanada.aspx The Queen's role in Canada] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220102227/http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchAndCommonwealth/Canada/TheQueensroleinCanada.aspx |date=20 February 2009 }}, [[Royal Households of the United Kingdom|Royal Household]]. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.</ref>

In many countries, official [[portrait]]s of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, or other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to medieval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a [[personality cult]] where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the [[flag]].

Other common representations are on [[coin]]s, [[Postage stamp|postage and other stamps]] and [[banknote]]s, sometimes by no more than a mention or signature; and public places, streets, monuments and institutions such as schools are named for current or previous heads of state. In monarchies (e.g., Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective "royal" on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate.

Heads of state often greet important foreign visitors, particularly visiting heads of state. They assume a host role during a [[state visit]], and the programme may feature playing of the [[national anthem]]s by a [[military band]], inspection of [[Guard of honour|military troops]], official exchange of gifts, and attending a [[state dinner]] at the [[official residence]] of the host.

At home, heads of state are expected to render lustre to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in a theatrical honour box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table), expositions, [[National Day|national day celebrations]], dedication events, military parades and war remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting different parts of the country and people from different walks of life, and at times performing symbolic acts such as [[Ribbon-cutting ceremony|cutting a ribbon]], [[groundbreaking]], [[Ship naming and launching|ship christening]], laying the first stone. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage.

The [[Olympic Charter]] (rule 55.3) of the [[International Olympic Committee]] states that the [[Summer Olympic Games|Olympic summer]] and [[Winter Olympic Games|winter games]] shall be [[List of people who have opened the Olympic Games|opened by]] the head of state of the host nation, by uttering a single formulaic phrase as determined by the charter.<ref>[https://stillmed.olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/General/EN-Olympic-Charter.pdf Olympic Charter: in force as of 2 August 2016] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919080933/https://stillmed.olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/General/EN-Olympic-Charter.pdf |date=19 September 2016 }}, [[International Olympic Committee]] (August 2016). Retrieved on 13 September 2016.</ref>

As such invitations may be very numerous, such duties are often in part [[delegation|delegated]] to such persons as a spouse, a [[head of government]] or a [[cabinet minister]] or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without rendering offence) just a military officer or civil servant.

For non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the [[head of government]]). This means that the government discreetly approves agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the [[Kingdom of Belgium]] from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne.

Below follows a list of examples from different countries of general provisions in law, which either designate an office as head of state or define its general purpose.
* ''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Section 56 (1) of the [[Spanish Constitution of 1978]] states:
** ''The [[Monarchy of Spain|King]] is the Head of State, the symbol of its unity and permanence. He arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions, assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations, especially with the nations of its historical community, and exercises the functions expressly conferred on him by the Constitution and the laws.''<ref>[http://www.senado.es/constitu_i/indices/consti_ing.pdf SPANISH CONSTITUTION] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421032216/http://www.senado.es/constitu_i/indices/consti_ing.pdf |date=21 April 2012 }}, [[Senate of Spain]]. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy):'' Article 2 of the New Zealand [[Constitution Act 1986]] states:
** ''(1) The [[Monarchy of New Zealand|Sovereign in right of New Zealand]] is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time.''
** ''(2) The [[Governor-General of New Zealand|Governor-General]] appointed by the Sovereign is the Sovereign's representative in New Zealand.''<ref name="new zealand">[http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1986/0114/latest/096be8ed80762277.pdf Constitution Act 1986] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017063836/http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1986/0114/latest/096be8ed80762277.pdf |date=17 October 2013 }}, New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. Retrieved on 28 August 2013.</ref>
* ''Example 3 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy):'' Article 1 of the [[Constitution of Japan]] states:
** ''The [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] shall be the symbol of the State and of the unity of the People, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.''<ref name=japan>[http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html The Constitution of Japan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214104438/http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html |date=14 December 2013 }}, [[Prime Minister of Japan|Office of the Prime Minister]]. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 4 (parliamentary republic):'' Title II, Article 87 of the [[Constitution of Italy]] states:
** ''The [[President of Italy|President of the Republic]] is the Head of the State and represents national unity.''<ref name=senato.it>[http://www.senato.it/documenti/repository/istituzione/costituzione_inglese.pdf Constitution of the Italian Republic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520124929/http://www.senato.it/documenti/repository/istituzione/costituzione_inglese.pdf |date=20 May 2012 }}, [[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Senate of the Republic]]. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 5 (parliamentary republic):'' Article 67 of the [[Constitution of Iraq|Iraqi constitution of 2005]] states:
** ''The [[President of Iraq|President of the Republic]] is the Head of the State and a symbol of the unity of the country and represents the sovereignty of the country. He shall guarantee the commitment to the Constitution and the preservation of Iraq's independence, sovereignty, unity, and the safety of its territories, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.''<ref>[http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf Constitution of Iraq] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128152712/http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf |date=28 November 2016 }}. Retrieved 3 August 2014.</ref>
* ''Example 6 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Chapter I, Article 120 of the [[Constitution of Portugal]] states:
** ''The [[President of Portugal|President of the Republic]] represents the Portuguese Republic, guarantees national independence, the unity of the state and the proper operation of the democratic institutions, and is [[ex officio]] Commander-in-Chief of the [[Portuguese Armed Forces|Armed Forces]].''<ref name=portugal>[http://www.tribunalconstitucional.pt/tc/conteudo/files/constituicaoingles.pdf CONSTITUTION OF THE PORTUGUESE REPUBLIC: SEVENTH REVISION (2005)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140623021037/http://www.tribunalconstitucional.pt/tc/conteudo/files/constituicaoingles.pdf |date=23 June 2014 }}, [[Portuguese Constitutional Court]]. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 7 (presidential republic):'' Chapter IV, Section 1, Article 66 of the [[Constitution of the Republic of Korea]] states:
** ''(1)The [[President of South Korea|President]] shall be the Head of State and represent the State vis-à-vis foreign states.''
** ''(2)The President shall have the responsibility and duty to safeguard the independence, territorial integrity and continuity of the State and the Constitution.''<ref name="south korea">[http://english.ccourt.go.kr/home/att_file/download/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_Korea.pdf THE CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310154748/http://english.ccourt.go.kr/home/att_file/download/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_Korea.pdf |date=10 March 2012 }}, [[Constitutional Court of Korea]]. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 8 (semi-presidential republic):'' Chapter VI, Article 77 of the [[Constitution of Lithuania]] states:
** ''The [[President of Lithuania|President of the Republic]] shall be Head of State.''
** ''He shall represent the State of Lithuania and shall perform everything with which he is charged by the Constitution and laws.''<ref>[http://www3.lrs.lt/home/Konstitucija/Constitution.htm The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518165642/http://www3.lrs.lt/home/Konstitucija/Constitution.htm |date=18 May 2019 }}, [[Seimas]]. Retrieved on 2 November 2012</ref>
* ''Example 9 (semi-presidential republic):'' Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 1-2 of the [[Constitution of Russia]] states:
** ''1. The [[President of the Russian Federation]] shall be the Head of State.''
** ''2. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the guarantor of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and of human and civil rights and freedoms. In accordance with the procedure established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, he (she) shall adopt measures to protect the sovereignty of the Russian Federation, its independence and State integrity, and shall ensure the coordinated functioning and interaction of State government bodies.''<ref name=government.ru>[http://www.government.ru/eng/gov/base/54.html Constitution of the Russian Federation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504062759/http://www.government.ru/eng/gov/base/54.html |date=4 May 2013 }}, [[Government of the Russian Federation]]. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 10 (presidential republic):'' Section 87 (Second Division, Chapter 1) of the [[Constitution of Argentina]] provides that:
** ''The Executive Power of the Nation shall be vested in a citizen with the title of "[[President of the Argentine Nation]]".''<ref name=argentina>[http://www.senado.gov.ar/web/interes/constitucion/english.php CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE NATION] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604215413/http://www.senado.gov.ar/web/interes/constitucion/english.php |date=4 June 2011 }}, [[Argentine Senate]]. Retrieved on 16 November 2012.</ref>

===Executive role===
In the majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, [[executive branch|executive authority]] is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, [[de facto]] chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as "Her Majesty's Government" and "His Excellency's Government." Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Canada]], [[Denmark]], [[India]], [[Italy]], [[Norway]], [[Spain]] and the [[United Kingdom]].
* ''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' According to Section 12 of the [[Constitution of Denmark]] 1953:
** ''Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the [[Monarchy of Denmark|King]] shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the [[Cabinet of Denmark|Ministers]].''<ref name=denmark>[http://www.thedanishparliament.dk/Publications/~/media/Pdf_materiale/Pdf_publikationer/English/My%20Constitutional%20Act_with_explanations_version%209.ashx My Constitutional Act with explanations, 9th edition] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618173318/http://www.thedanishparliament.dk/Publications/~/media/Pdf_materiale/Pdf_publikationer/English/My%20Constitutional%20Act_with_explanations_version%209.ashx |date=18 June 2013 }}, The Communications Section, [[Folketing|Danish Parliament]] (August 2012). Retrieved on 11 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy):'' Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the [[Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act]] 1900:
** ''The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the [[Monarchy of Australia|Queen]] and is exercisable by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]] as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth.''<ref name=australia>[http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2005Q00193/0332ed71-e2d9-4451-b6d1-33ec4b570e9f The Constitution as in force on 1 June 2003 together with proclamation declaring the establishment of the Commonwealth, letters patent relating to the Office of Governor-General, Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, Australia Act 1986.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510150908/http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2005Q00193/0332ed71-e2d9-4451-b6d1-33ec4b570e9f |date=10 May 2012 }}, [[ComLaw]], [[Government of Australia]] (2003) {{ISBN|0 642 78285 7}}. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 3 (parliamentary republic):'' According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 [[Constitution of Greece]]:
** ''The executive power shall be exercised by the [[President of Greece|President of the Republic]] and the [[Government of Greece|Government]].''<ref name=greece>[http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf The Constitution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114142907/http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf |date=14 November 2017 }}, Publications Department, [[Hellenic Parliament]] (2008) {{ISBN|960 560 073 0}}. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 4 (parliamentary republic):'' According to Article 53 (1) of the [[Constitution of India]]:
** ''The executive power of the union shall be vested in the [[President of India|President]] and shall be exercised by him either directly or indirectly through the officers subordinate to him in accordance to the Constitution.''<ref name=india>[http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/Const.Pock%202Pg.Rom8Fsss%289%29.pdf Constitution of India, Part V] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824000303/http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/Const.Pock%202Pg.Rom8Fsss(9).pdf |date=24 August 2015 }}, [[Ministry of Law and Justice (India)|Ministry of Law and Justice]]. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 5 (semi-presidential republic):'' Under Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 3 of the [[Constitution of Russia]]:
** ''The [[President of the Russian Federation]] shall, in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws, determine the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.''<ref name=government.ru/>
* ''Example 6 (presidential republic):'' Title IV, Chapter II, Section I, Article 76 of the [[Constitution of Brazil]]:
** ''The Executive Power is exercised by the [[President of Brazil|President of the Republic]], assisted by the [[Cabinet of Brazil|Ministers of State]].''<ref name=brazil>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120426071904/http://bd.camara.gov.br/bd/bitstream/handle/bdcamara/1344/constituicao_ingles_3ed.pdf?sequence=7 Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil: 3rd Edition], [[Chamber of Deputies (Brazil)|Chamber of Deputies]] (2010) {{ISBN|978-85-736-5737-1}}. Retrieved on 13 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 7 (presidential republic):'' Article 2, Section 1 of the [[United States Constitution]] states:
** ''The executive Power shall be vested in a [[President of the United States|President of the United States of America]].''<ref name="us constitution">[https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html Constitution of the United States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819235454/http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html |date=19 August 2011 }}, [[National Archives and Records Administration]]. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.</ref>

The few exceptions where the head of state is not even the nominal chief executive - and where supreme executive authority is according to the constitution explicitly vested in a cabinet - include the [[Czech Republic]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Israel]], [[Japan]] and [[Sweden]].<ref name=japan/><ref name="sweden ig"/>

====Appointment of senior officials====
The head of state usually appoints most or all the key officials in the government, including the [[head of government]] and other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in the [[civil service]], [[foreign service]] and [[commissioned officer|commissioned officers in the military]]. In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of government's advice.

In practice, these decisions are often a formality. The last time the [[prime minister of the United Kingdom]] was unilaterally selected by the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|monarch]] was in 1963, when Queen [[Elizabeth II]] appointed [[Alec Douglas-Home]] on the advice of outgoing Prime Minister [[Harold Macmillan]].

In presidential systems, such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the president's sole discretion, but this nomination is often subject to confirmation by the legislature; and specifically in the US, the [[United States Senate|Senate]] has to approve senior executive branch and judicial appointments by a simple majority vote.<ref name="us constitution"/>

The head of state may also dismiss office-holders. There are many variants on how this can be done. For example, members of the Irish Cabinet are dismissed by the [[President of Ireland|president]] on the advice of the [[taoiseach]]; in other instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder unilaterally; other heads of state, or their representatives, have the theoretical power to dismiss any office-holder, while it is exceptionally rarely used.<ref name=ireland>[http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/en/constitution/index.html Constitution of Ireland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820000112/http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/en/constitution/index.html |date=20 August 2015 }}, Office of the Attorney General (December 2013). Retrieved 3 August 2014.</ref> In [[France]], while the [[President of France|president]] cannot force the [[Prime Minister of France|prime minister]] to tender the resignation of the government, he can, in practice, request it if the prime minister is from his own majority.<ref name=france/> In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the United States, the unwritten convention calls for the [[United States federal executive departments|heads of the executive departments]] to resign on their own initiative when called to do so.
* ''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 96 of the [[Constitution of Belgium]]:
** ''The [[Monarchy of Belgium|King]] appoints and dismisses his ministers.<br />The [[Cabinet of Belgium|Federal Government]] offers its resignation to the King if the [[Belgian Chamber of Representatives|House of Representatives]], by an absolute majority of its members, adopts a motion of no confidence proposing a successor to the [[Prime Minister of Belgium|prime minister]] for appointment by the King or proposes a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King within three days of the rejection of a motion of confidence. The King appoints the proposed successor as prime minister, who takes office when the new Federal Government is sworn in.''<ref name=belgium>[http://www.dekamer.be/kvvcr/pdf_sections/publications/constitution/grondwetEN.pdf The Belgian Constitution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706134014/http://www.dekamer.be/kvvcr/pdf_sections/publications/constitution/grondwetEN.pdf |date=6 July 2011 }}, Legal Department, [[Chamber of Representatives (Belgium)|Belgian House of Representatives]] (August 2012). Retrieved on 11 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 2 (parliamentary non-executive republic):'' Article 13.1.1 of the [[Constitution of Ireland]]:
** ''The [[President of Ireland|President]] shall, on the nomination of [[Dáil Éireann]], appoint the [[Taoiseach]].''<ref name=ireland />
* ''Example 3 (semi-presidential republic):'' Chapter 4, Section 2 of the [[Constitution of the Republic of Korea]] states:
** ''The [[Prime Minister of South Korea|Prime Minister]] is appointed by the [[President of South Korea|President]] with the consent of the [[National Assembly of South Korea|National Assembly]].''<ref name="south korea"/>
* ''Example 4 (presidential republic):'' Article 84 of the [[Constitution of Brazil]]:
** ''The [[President of Brazil|President of the Republic]] shall have the exclusive power to:''
*** ''I - appoint and dismiss the [[Cabinet of Brazil|Ministers of State]]:''
*** ''XIII -...appoint the commanders of [[Brazilian Armed Forces|Navy, Army and Air Force]], to promote general officers and to appoint them to the offices held exclusively by them;''
*** ''XIV - appoint, after approval by the [[Senate of Brazil|Senate]], the Justices of the [[Supreme Federal Court]] and those of the superior courts, the [[Governor (Brazil)|Governors of the territories]], the [[Attorney General of Brazil|Attorney-General of the Republic]], the President and the Directors of the [[Central Bank of Brazil|Central Bank]] and other civil servants, when established by law;''
*** ''XV - appoint, with due regard for the provisions of article 73, the Justices of the [[Tribunal de Contas da União|Federal Court of Accounts]];''
*** ''XVI - appoint judges in the events established by this Constitution and the [[Office of the Solicitor-General in Brazil|Advocate-General of the Union]];''
*** ''XVII - appoint members of the Council of the Republic, in accordance with article 89, VII''
*** ''XXV - fill and abolish federal government positions, as set forth by law''.<ref name=brazil/>

Some countries have alternative provisions for senior appointments: In [[Sweden]], under the [[Instrument of Government (1974)|Instrument of Government of 1974]], the [[Speaker of the parliament of Sweden|Speaker of the Riksdag]] has the role of formally appointing the [[Prime Minister of Sweden|prime minister]], following a vote in the [[Riksdag]], and the prime minister in turn appoints and dismisses cabinet ministers at his/her sole discretion.<ref name="sweden ig"/>

====Diplomatic role====
[[File:Vladimir Putin with Tekiso Hati.jpg|thumb|Tekiso Hati, ambassador of the [[Kingdom of Lesotho]], presenting his credentials to [[President of Russia|Russian president]] [[Vladimir Putin]]]]
[[File:Shapiro presenting credentials to Peres 2011-08-03.jpg|thumb|[[Daniel B. Shapiro]], [[U.S. Ambassador to Israel|U.S. ambassador to Israel]], presents his credentials to [[President of Israel|Israeli president]] [[Shimon Peres]] on 3 August 2011]]
[[File:Juraj Nemeš letter of credence.JPG|thumb|A 1992 [[letter of credence]], written in French, for the Czechoslovakian Ambassador to [[Lithuania]], signed by the [[president of Czechoslovakia]] and addressed to his Lithuanian counterpart]]

Although many constitutions, particularly from the 19th century and earlier, make no explicit mention of a head of state in the generic sense of several present day international treaties, the officeholders corresponding to this position are recognised as such by other countries.<ref name=unprotocol/><ref name="vienna diplomatic"/> In a monarchy, the [[monarch]] is generally understood to be the head of state.<ref name=unprotocol/><ref name=Robertson:221>[[#Robertson|Robertson]]: p. 221.</ref><ref name=Roberts:35–44>[[#Roberts|Roberts]]: pp. 35–44.</ref>
The [[Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations]], which codified longstanding custom, operates under the presumption that the head of a diplomatic mission (i.e. [[ambassador]] or [[nuncio]]) of the sending state is accredited to the head of state of the receiving state.<ref name=Roberts:71–79>[[#Roberts|Roberts]]: pp. 71–79.</ref><ref name="vienna diplomatic">[http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/9_1_1961.pdf Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817151217/http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/9_1_1961.pdf |date=17 August 2018 }}, [[International Law Commission]], United Nations. Retrieved on 15 October 2012.</ref> The head of state accredits (i.e. formally validates) their country's [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]]s (or rarer equivalent diplomatic mission chiefs, such as [[high commissioner]] or [[papal nuncio]]) through sending formal a [[letter of credence]] (and a Letter of Recall at the end of a tenure) to other heads of state and, conversely, receives the letters of their foreign counterparts.<ref name=Roberts:61-58>[[#Roberts|Roberts]]: pp. 61-68.</ref> Without that accreditation, the chief of the diplomatic mission cannot take up their role and receive the highest diplomatic status. The role of a head of state in this regard, is codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations from 1961, which (as of 2017) 191 sovereign states has [[ratification|ratified]].<ref name="vienna diplomatic"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=III-3&chapter=3&clang=_en|work=United Nations Treaty Collection|title=Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations|publisher=United Nations|access-date=27 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315003035/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=III-3&chapter=3&clang=_en|archive-date=15 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

However, there are provisions in the Vienna Convention that a diplomatic agent of lesser rank, such as a [[chargé d'affaires]], is accredited to the [[minister of foreign affairs]] (or equivalent).<ref name="vienna diplomatic"/>

The head of state is often designated the [[high contracting party]] in international treaties on behalf of the state; signs them either personally or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent [[ratification]], when necessary, may rest with the [[legislature]]. The treaties constituting the [[European Union]] and the [[European Communities]] are noteworthy contemporary cases of multilateral treaties cast in this traditional format, as are the accession agreements of new member states.<ref name=Roberts:542-543>[[#Roberts|Roberts]]: pp. 542-543.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url-status=live |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2007:306:FULL:EN:PDF |title=Treaty of Lisbon (OJ C 306) |date=17 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130316084715/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2007:306:FULL:EN:PDF |archive-date=16 March 2013 |journal=[[Official Journal of the European Union]] |publisher=[[EUR-Lex]] |access-date=1 November 2012 |volume=50 |issue=C 306 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/treaties/dat/11992M/htm/11992M.html |title=Treaty on European Union (92/C 191/01) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201191729/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/treaties/dat/11992M/htm/11992M.html |archive-date=1 February 2009 |work=[[Official Journal of the European Union]] |publisher=[[EUR-Lex]] |access-date=11 November 2012 }}</ref> However, rather than being invariably concluded between two heads of state, it has become common that bilateral treaties are in present times cast in an intergovernmental format, e.g., between the ''Government of X and the Government of Y'', rather than between ''His Majesty the King of X and His Excellency the President of Y''.<ref name=Roberts:542-543/>
* ''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 8 of the [[Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein]] states:
** ''1) The [[Prince of Liechtenstein|Reigning Prince]] shall represent the State in all its relations with foreign countries, without prejudice to the requisite participation of the responsible [[Cabinet of Liechtenstein|Government]].''
** ''2) Treaties by which territory of the State would be ceded, State property alienated, sovereign rights or prerogatives of the State affected, a new burden imposed on the Principality or its citizens, or an obligation assumed that would limit the rights of the citizens of Liechtenstein shall require the assent of [[Landtag of Liechtenstein|Parliament]] to attain legal force.''<ref name=liechtenstein/>
* ''Example 2 (parliamentary republic):'' Article 59 (1) of the [[Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany]] states:
** ''The [[President of Germany|Federal President]] shall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys.''.<ref name=germany/>
* ''Example 3 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Article 14 of the [[French Constitution of 1958]] states:
** ''The [[President of France|President of the Republic]] shall accredit ambassadors and envoys extraordinary to foreign powers; foreign ambassadors and envoys extraordinary shall be accredited to him.''<ref name=france/>
* ''Example 4 (semi-presidential republic):'' Chapter 4, Article 86, Section 4 of the [[Constitution of Russia]] states:
** ''The [[President of the Russian Federation]]:''
*** ''a) shall direct the foreign policy of the Russian Federation;''
*** ''b) shall hold negotiations and sign international treaties of the Russian Federation;''
*** ''c) shall sign instruments of ratification;''
*** ''d) shall receive letters of credence and letters of recall of diplomatic representatives accredited to his (her) office.''<ref name=government.ru/>
* ''Example 5 (single party republic):'' Section 2, Article 81 of the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]] states:
** ''The [[President of the People's Republic of China]] receives foreign diplomatic representatives on behalf of the People's Republic of China and, in pursuance of decisions of the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]], appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad, and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states.''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.gov.cn/2005-08/05/content_20813.htm |title=Constitution |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726154413/http://english.gov.cn/2005-08/05/content_20813.htm |archive-date=26 July 2013 |website=Chinese Government's Official Web portal |access-date=2 November 2012}}</ref>

In [[Canada]], these head of state powers belong to the [[Monarchy of Canada|monarch]] as part of the [[royal prerogative]],<ref>{{Cite book| last=Alston| first=Philip| title=Treaty-making and Australia: globalization versus sovereignty?| publisher=Federation Press| year=1995| location=Annandale| page=254| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4_HQYFoPCewC| isbn=978-1-86287-195-3}}</ref><ref>{{Citation| last=Bayefsky| first=Anne F.| date=1993| contribution=International Human Rights Law in Canadian Courts| editor-last=Kaplan| editor-first=William| editor2-last=McRae| editor2-first=Donald Malcolm| editor3-last=Cohen| editor3-first=Maxwell| title=Law, policy and international justice: essays in honour of Maxwell Cohen| page=112| location=Montreal| publisher=McGill-Queen's Press| isbn=978-0-7735-1114-9| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_7XwU1EvIsAC| access-date=16 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| last=Flemming| first=Brian| title=Canadian Practice in International Law| journal=The Canadian Yearbook of International Law| volume=III| page=337| publisher=University of British Columbia Press| location=Vancouver| year=1965| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LPT_7nv8_IC| access-date=16 January 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412225630/https://books.google.com/books?id=9LPT_7nv8_IC&printsec=frontcover| archive-date=12 April 2016| url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=GeoVI>{{Citation| last=George VI| author-link=George VI| date=1 October 1947| title=Letters Patent Constituting the Office of Governor General of Canada| location=Ottawa| publisher=King's Printer for Canada| url=http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/LettersPatent.html| access-date=29 May 2009| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924103619/http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/LettersPatent.html| archive-date=24 September 2015| url-status=live}}</ref> but the [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] has been permitted to exercise them since 1947 and has done so since the 1970s.<ref name=GeoVI /><ref>{{cite web| url=http://archive.gg.ca/gg/fgg/bios/03/02e_e.asp| last=Office of the Governor General of Canada| author-link=Governor General of Canada| title=The Governor General - the evolution of Canada's oldest public institution| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| access-date=16 January 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613180418/http://archive.gg.ca/gg/fgg/bios/03/02e_e.asp| archive-date=13 June 2011| url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Military role====
{{Main|Commander in Chief}}
[[File:21 juli 2011 Defilé Koning Albert II.png|thumb|[[Albert II of Belgium|Albert II]], [[Monarchy of Belgium|King of the Belgians]] inspecting [[Belgian Armed Forces|troops]] on Belgium's [[national day]] in 2011]]
[[File:Nicolas Sarkozy Bastille Day 2008 n1.jpg|thumb|[[Nicolas Sarkozy]], [[President of France]] and General [[Jean-Louis Georgelin]], [[Chief of the Defence Staff (France)|Chief of the Defence Staff]], reviewing troops during the 2008 [[Bastille Day military parade]] on the [[Champs-Élysées]] in [[Paris]]]]

A head of state is often, by virtue of holding the highest executive powers, explicitly designated as the [[commander-in-chief]] of that nation's [[armed forces]], holding the highest office in all military [[chain of command|chains of command]].

In a constitutional monarchy or non-executive presidency, the head of state may [[de jure]] hold ultimate authority over the armed forces but will only normally, as per either written law or unwritten convention, exercise their authority on the advice of their responsible ministers: meaning that the [[de facto]] ultimate decision making on military manoeuvres is made elsewhere. The head of state will, regardless of actual authority, perform ceremonial duties related to the country's armed forces, and will sometimes appear in military uniform for these purposes; particularly in monarchies where also the monarch's consort and other members of a [[royal family]] may also appear in military garb. This is generally the only time a head of state of a stable, democratic country will appear dressed in such a manner, as statesmen and public are eager to assert the [[civilian control of the military|primacy of (civilian, elected) politics over the armed forces]].

In [[military dictatorship]]s, or governments which have arisen from [[coups d'état]], the position of commander-in-chief is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond the normal constitutional role, as King [[Albert I of Belgium]] did during [[World War I]]. In these and in revolutionary regimes, the head of state, and often [[executive minister]]s whose offices are legally civilian, will frequently appear in military uniform.
* ''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article III, Section 15 of the [[Constitution Act, 1867]], a part of the [[Constitution of Canada]], states:
** ''The Command-in-Chief of the [[Canadian Armed Forces|Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada]], is hereby declared to continue to be vested in the [[Monarchy of Canada|Queen]].''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html|title=The Constitution Act, 1867|access-date=29 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100203024121/http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html|archive-date=3 February 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* ''Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 25 of the [[Constitution of Norway]] states:
** ''The [[Monarchy of Norway|King]] is Commander-in-Chief of the [[Norwegian Armed Forces|land and naval forces of the Realm]]. These forces may not be increased or reduced without the consent of the [[Storting]]. They may not be transferred to the service of foreign powers, nor may the military forces of any foreign power, except auxiliary forces assisting against hostile attack, be brought into the Realm without the consent of the Storting.''
** ''The territorial army and the other troops which cannot be classed as troops of the line must never, without the consent of the Storting, be employed outside the borders of the Realm.''<ref name=norway>[http://www.stortinget.no/en/In-English/About-the-Storting/The-Constitution/The-Constitution The Constitution, as laid down on 17 May 1814 by the Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll and subsequently amended.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515121627/http://www.stortinget.no/en/In-English/About-the-Storting/The-Constitution/The-Constitution/ |date=15 May 2012 }}, Information Service, [[Parliament of Norway]]. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 3 (parliamentary republic):'' Chapter II, Article 87, 4th section of the [[Constitution of Italy]] states:
** ''The [[President of Italy|President]] is the commander-in-chief of the [[Italian Armed Forces|armed forces]], shall preside over the Supreme Council of Defense established by law, and shall make declarations of war as have been agreed by Parliament of Italy.''
* ''Example 4 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Article 15 of the [[French Constitution of 1958]] states:
** ''The [[President of France|President of the Republic]] shall be Commander-in-Chief of the [[French Armed Forces|Armed Forces]]. He shall preside over the higher national defence councils and committees.''<ref name=france/>
* ''Example 5 (semi-presidential republic):'' According to Chapter 4, Article 87, Section 1 of the [[Constitution of Russia]]:
** ''The [[President of the Russian Federation]] shall be the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the [[Armed Forces of the Russian Federation]].''<ref name=government.ru/>
* ''Example 6 (presidential republic):'' Article II, Section 2 of the [[United States Constitution]] states:
** ''The [[President of the United States|President]] shall be Commander in Chief of the [[United States Armed Forces|Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States]].''<ref name="us constitution"/>
* ''Example 7 (executive monarchy):'' Article 65 of the [[Constitution of Qatar]] provides that:
** ''The [[Emir of Qatar|Emir]] is the Commander-in-Chief of the [[Qatar Armed Forces|armed forces]]. He shall supervise the same with the assistance of Defence Council under his direct authority. The said Council shall be constituted by an Emiri Resolution, which will also determine the functions thereof.''<ref name=qatar/>

Some countries with a [[parliamentary system]] designate officials other than the head of state with command-in-chief powers.
* In [[Germany]], the [[Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany|Basic Law for the Federal Republic]] vests this authority in the [[Minister of Defence (Germany)|Minister of Defence]] in normal peacetime (article 65a), and that command authority is transferred to the [[Chancellor of Germany (Federal Republic of Germany)|federal chancellor]] when a [[State of Defence (Germany)|State of Defence]] is invoked (article 115b): something which has never happened so far.<ref name=germany>"[https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany]", [[Bundestag]] (October 2010). Retrieved on 11 November 2012. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619180331/https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf |date=19 June 2017 }}.</ref>
* In [[Israel]], the [[Basic Laws of Israel|applicable basic law]] states that the ultimate authority over the [[Israel Defense Forces]] rests with the [[Cabinet of Israel|Government of Israel]] as a collective body. The authority of the Government is exercised by the [[Ministry of Defense (Israel)|minister of defence]] on behalf of the Government, and subordinate to the minister is the [[Chief of General Staff (Israel)|chief of general staff]] who holds the highest level of command within the military.<ref name="israel bl military">[https://www.knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basic11_eng.htm Basic Law of Israel: The Military] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140827085026/http://knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basic11_eng.htm |date=27 August 2014 }}, [[Knesset]]. Retrieved on 11 November 2011.</ref>

The armed forces of the [[Communist state]]s are under the absolute control of the [[Communist party]].
* In [[China]], the [[Supreme Military Command of the People's Republic of China|command-in-chief]] of the [[People's Liberation Army]] is the [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|Chairman of the Central Military Commission]], but not the [[President of the People's Republic of China|president of China]], however, in practice, these offices are held by the same person, who is also [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]].

===Legislative roles===
It is usual that the head of state, particularly in parliamentary systems as part of the symbolic role, is the one who opens the annual sessions of the legislature, e.g. the annual [[State Opening of Parliament]] with the [[Speech from the Throne]] in Britain. Even in presidential systems the head of state often formally reports to the legislature on the present national status, e.g. the [[State of the Union address]] in the United States of America, or the State of the Nation Address in South Africa.

Most countries require that all [[bill (proposed law)|bill]]s passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and Ireland, the head of state is, in fact, formally considered a tier of the legislature. However, in most parliamentary systems, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, and, in granting a bill their assent, indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known as ''[[promulgation]]''. Some monarchical states call this procedure ''[[royal assent]]''.
* ''Example 1 (non-executive parliamentary monarchy):'' Chapter 1, Article 4 of the [[Constitution of Sweden|Swedish ''Riksdag Act'']] provides that:
** ''The formal opening of a [[Riksdag of Sweden|Riksdag]] session takes place at a special meeting of the Chamber held no later than the third day of the session. At this meeting, the [[Monarchy of Sweden|Head of State]] declares the session open at the invitation of the [[Speaker of the Riksdag|Speaker]]. If the Head of State is unable to attend, the Speaker declares the session open.''<ref name="sweden ra">[http://www.riksdagen.se/Global/dokument/dokument/laws/the-riksdag-act-2012.pdf The Riksdag Act] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201001248/http://www.riksdagen.se/Global/dokument/dokument/laws/the-riksdag-act-2012.pdf |date=1 February 2013 }}, [[Riksdag of Sweden]]. Retrieved on 16 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 9 of the [[Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein]] provides that:
** ''Every law shall require the sanction of the [[Prince of Liechtenstein|Reigning Prince]] to attain legal force.''<ref name=liechtenstein/>
* ''Example 3 (parliamentary republic):'' Section 11.a.1. of the [[Basic Laws of Israel]] states:
** ''The [[President of Israel|President of the State]] shall sign every Law, other than a Law relating to its powers.''<ref name="israel bl president">[https://www.knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basic12_eng.htm Basic Law of Israel: The President of the State] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020072505/https://www.knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basic12_eng.htm |date=20 October 2017 }}, [[Knesset]]. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 4 (semi-presidential republic):'' According to Chapter 4, Article 84 of the [[Constitution of the Russian Federation]]:
** ''The [[President of the Russian Federation]]:''
*** ''a) shall announce elections to the [[State Duma]] in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal law;''
*** ''c) shall announce referendums in accordance with the procedure established by federal constitutional law;''
*** ''d) shall submit draft laws to the State Duma;''
*** ''e) shall sign and promulgate federal laws;''
*** ''f) shall address the [[Federal Assembly (Russia)|Federal Assembly]] with annual messages on the situation in the country and on the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.''<ref name=government.ru/>
* ''Example 5 (presidential republic):'' Article 1, Section 7 of the [[United States Constitution]] states:
** ''Every Bill which shall have passed the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] and the [[United States Senate|Senate]], shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the [[President of the United States]]; If he approves he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated... ''<ref name="us constitution"/>
* ''Example 6 (presidential republic):'' Article 84 of the [[Brazilian Constitution]] provides that:
** ''The [[President of Brazil|President of the Republic]] shall have the exclusive power to:''
*** ''III – start the legislative procedure, in the manner and in the cases set forth in this Constitution;''
*** ''IV - sanction, promulgate and order the publication of laws, as well as to issue decrees and regulations for the true enforcement thereof;''
*** ''V - veto bills, wholly or in part;''
*** ''XI - upon the opening of the legislative session, send a government message and plan to the [[National Congress of Brazil|National Congress]], describing the state of the nation and requesting the actions he deems necessary;''
*** ''XXIII - submit to the National Congress the pluriannual plan, the bill of budgetary directives and the budget proposals set forth in this Constitution;''
*** ''XXIV - render, each year, accounts to the National Congress concerning the previous fiscal year, within sixty days of the opening of the legislative session''.<ref name=brazil/>
* ''Example 7 (ruling monarchy):'' Article 106 of the [[Constitution of Qatar]] states:
** ''1. Any draft law passed by the [[Consultative Assembly of Qatar|Council]] shall be referred to the [[Emir of Qatar|Emir]] for ratification.''
** ''2. If the Emir, declines to approve the draft law, he shall return it a long with the reasons for such declination to the Council within a period of three months from the date of referral.''
** ''3. In the event that a draft law is returned to the Council within the period specified in the preceding paragraph and the Council passes the same once more with a two-thirds majority of all its Members, the Emir shall ratify and promulgate it. The Emir may in compelling circumstances order the suspension of this law for the period that he deems necessary to serve the higher interests of the country. If, however, the draft law is not passed by a two-thirds majority, it shall not be reconsidered within the same term of session.''<ref name=qatar>[http://english.mofa.gov.qa/details.cfm?id=80 Constitution of the State of Qatar] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041024231923/http://english.mofa.gov.qa/details.cfm?id=80 |date=24 October 2004 }}, [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Qatar)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]]. Retrieved on 17 November 2012.</ref>

In some parliamentary systems, the head of state retains certain discretionary powers in relation to bills to be exercised. They may have authority to veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time; reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with [[royal prerogative]]; this power is rarely used); refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality; refer a bill to the people in a [[referendum]].

If the head of state also serves as the chief executive, the head of state can politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.

===Summoning and dissolving the legislature===
A head of state is often empowered to summon and dissolve the country's [[legislature]]. In most [[parliamentary system]]s, this is often done on the advice of the [[head of government]]. In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, however, the head of state may do so on their own initiative. Some states have fixed term legislatures, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g., Article II, Section 3, of the [[U.S. Constitution]]<ref name="us constitution"/>). In other systems there are usually fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a head of government has lost support in the legislature, some heads of state may refuse a dissolution, where one is requested, thereby forcing the head of government's resignation.
* ''Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive republic):'' Article 13.2.2. of the [[Constitution of Ireland]] states:
** ''The [[President of Ireland|President]] may in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve [[Dáil Éireann]] on the advice of a [[Taoiseach]] who has ceased to retain the support of a majority in Dáil Éireann.''<ref name=ireland/>
* ''Example 2 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Article 12, first sentence of the [[French Constitution of 1958]] states:
** ''The [[President of France|President of the Republic]] may, after consulting the [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] and the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament, declare the [[National Assembly of France|National Assembly]] dissolved.''<ref name=france/>
* ''Example 3 (semi-presidential republic):'' Chapter 4, article 84 of the [[Constitution of the Russian Federation]] provides:
** ''The [[President of the Russian Federation]]:''
*** ''b) shall dissolve the [[State Duma]] in the cases and in accordance with the procedure provided for by the Constitution of the Russian Federation;''<ref name=government.ru/>

===Other prerogatives===

====Granting titles and honours====
* ''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 113 of the [[Constitution of Belgium]] states:
** ''The [[Monarchy of Belgium|King]] may confer [[Belgian nobility|titles of nobility]], without ever having the power to attach privileges to them.''<ref name=belgium/>
* ''Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 23 of the [[Constitution of Norway]] states:
** ''The [[Monarchy of Norway|King]] may bestow [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Norway|orders]] upon whomever he pleases as a reward for distinguished services, and such orders must be publicly announced, but no rank or title other than that attached to any office. The order exempts no one from the common duties and burdens of citizens, nor does it carry with it any preferential admission to senior official posts in the State. Senior officials honourably discharged from office retain the title and rank of their office. This does not apply, however, to Members of the [[Norwegian Council of State|Council of State]] or the State Secretaries.<br />No personal, or mixed, hereditary privileges may henceforth be granted to anyone.''<ref name=norway/>
* ''Example 3 (parliamentary republic):'' Title II, Article 87, 8th section of the [[Constitution of Italy]] states:
** ''The [[President of Italy|President]] shall confer the [[List of Italian orders of knighthood|honorary distinctions of the Republic]].''<ref name=senato.it/>

====Immunity====
{{See also|Sovereign immunity|Immunity from prosecution (international law)}}
* ''Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy):'' Chapter 5, Article 8 of the [[Instrument of Government (1974)|Swedish Instrument of Government of 1974]] states:
** ''The [[Monarchy of Sweden|King or Queen]] who is Head of State cannot be prosecuted for his or her actions. Nor can a Regent be prosecuted for his or her actions as Head of State.''<ref name="sweden ig">[http://www.riksdagen.se/Global/dokument/dokument/laws/the-instrument-of-government-2012.pdf The Instrument of Government] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140520150842/http://www.riksdagen.se/Global/dokument/dokument/laws/the-instrument-of-government-2012.pdf |date=20 May 2014 }}, [[Riksdag of Sweden]]. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 5 of the [[Constitution of Norway]] states:
** ''The [[Monarchy of Norway|King's]] person is sacred; he cannot be censured or accused. The responsibility rests with his [[Norwegian Council of State|Council]].''<ref name=norway/>
* ''Example 3 (parliamentary republic):'' Chapter 3, Article 65 of the [[Constitution of the Czech Republic]] states:
** ''(1) [[President of the Czech Republic|President of the Republic]] may not be detained, subjected to criminal prosecution or prosecuted for offence or other administrative delict.''
** ''(2) President of the Republic may be prosecuted for high treason at the [[Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic|Constitutional Court]] based on the [[Senate of the Parliament of the Czech Republic|Senate's]] suit. The punishment may be the loss of his presidential office and of his eligibility to regain it.''
** ''(3) Criminal prosecution for criminal offences committed by the President of the Republic while executing his office shall be ruled out forever.''<ref>[http://www.hrad.cz/en/czech-republic/constitution-of-the-cr.shtml Constitution of the Czech Republic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716211402/http://www.hrad.cz/en/czech-republic/constitution-of-the-cr.shtml |date=16 July 2012 }}, [[President of the Czech Republic|Prague Castle Administration]]. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 4 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Chapter I, Article 130 of the [[Constitution of Portugal]] states:
** ''1. The [[President of Portugal|President of the Republic]] answers before the [[Portuguese Supreme Court of Justice|Supreme Court of Justice]] for crimes committed in the exercise of his functions.''
** ''2. Proceedings may only be initiated by the [[Assembly of the Republic of Portugal|Assembly of the Republic]], upon a motion subscribed by one fifth and a decision passed by a two-thirds majority of all the Members of the Assembly of the Republic in full exercise of their office.''
** ''3. Conviction implies removal from office and disqualification from re-election.''
** ''4. For crimes that are not committed in the exercise of his functions, the President of the Republic answers before the common courts, once his term of office has ended.''<ref name=portugal/>
* ''Example 5 (executive monarchy):'' Article 64 of the [[Constitution of Qatar]]:
** ''The [[Emir of Qatar|Emir]] is the head of State. His person shall be inviolable and he must be respected by all.''<ref name=qatar/>

====Reserve powers====
{{See also|reserve power}}
* ''Example 1 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Article 16 of the [[French Constitution of 1958]] states:
** ''Where the institutions of the Republic, the independence of the Nation, the integrity of its territory or the fulfilment of its international commitments are under serious and immediate threat, and where the proper functioning of the constitutional public authorities is interrupted, the [[President of France|President of the Republic]] shall take measures required by these circumstances, after formally consulting the [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]], the [[French Parliament|Presidents of the Houses of Parliament]] and the [[Constitutional Council of France|Constitutional Council]].<br />He shall address the Nation and inform it of such measures.<br />The measures shall be designed to provide the constitutional public authorities as swiftly as possible, with the means to carry out their duties. The Constitutional Council shall be consulted with regard to such measures.<br />Parliament shall sit as of right.<br />The [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]] shall not be dissolved during the exercise of such emergency powers.<br />After thirty days of the exercise of such emergency powers, the matter may be referred to the Constitutional Council by the [[List of Presidents of the National Assembly of France|President of the National Assembly]], the [[List of Presidents of the French Senate|President of the Senate]], sixty Members of the National Assembly or sixty [[Senate (France)|Senators]], so as to decide if the conditions laid down in paragraph one still apply. The Council shall make its decision publicly as soon as possible. It shall, as of right, carry out such an examination and shall make its decision in the same manner after sixty days of the exercise of emergency powers or at any moment thereafter.''<ref name=france>[http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ab.asp Constitution of October 4, 1958] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100301072754/http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ab.asp |date=1 March 2010 }}, [[National Assembly (France)|The French National Assembly]]. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.</ref>
* ''Example 2 (executive monarchy):'' Articles 69 & 70 of the [[Constitution of Qatar]]:
** '''<small>Article 69</small>'''
*** ''The [[Emir of Qatar|Emir]] may, be a decree, declare [[Martial Law]]s in the country in the event of exceptional cases specified by the law; and in such cases, he may take all urgent necessary measures to counter any threat that undermine the safety of the State, the integrity of its territories or the security of its people and interests or obstruct the organs of the State from performing their duties. However, the decree must specify the nature of such exceptional cases for which the martial laws have been declared and clarify the measures taken to address this situation. [[Consultative Assembly of Qatar|Al-Shoura Council]] shall be notified of this decree within the fifteen days following its issue; and in the event that the Council is not in session for any reason whatsoever, the Council shall be notified of the decree at its first convening. Martial laws shall be declared for a limited period and the same shall not be extended unless approved by Al-Shoura Council.''
** '''<small>Article 70</small>'''
*** ''The Emir may, in the event of exceptional cases that require measures of utmost urgency which necessitate the issue of special laws and in case that Al-Shoura Council is not in session, issue pertinent decrees that have the power of law. Such decree-laws shall be submitted to Al-Shoura Council at its first meeting; and the Council may within a maximum period of forty days from the date of submission and with a two-thirds majority of its Members reject any of these decree-laws or request amendment thereof to be effected within a specified period of time; such decree-laws shall cease to have the power of law from the date of their rejection by the Council or where the period for effecting the amendments have expired.''<ref name=qatar/>

====Right of pardon====
{{See also|Pardon}}
* ''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Section 24 of the [[Constitution of Denmark]] states:
** ''The [[Monarchy of Denmark|King]] can grant pardons and amnesties. He may only pardon [[:Template:Danish ministerial posts|Ministers]] convicted by the [[Court of Impeachment (Denmark)|Court of Impeachment]] with the consent of [[Folketing|Parliament]].''<ref name=denmark/>
* ''Example 2 (parliamentary republic):'' According to Chapter V, Article 60(2) of the [[Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany]]:
** ''He <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[President of Germany|The President]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> shall exercise the power to pardon individual offenders on behalf of the Federation.''<ref name=germany/>
* ''Example 3 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Article 17 of the [[French Constitution of 1958]] states:
** ''The [[President of France|President of the Republic]] is vested with the power to grant individual pardons.''<ref name=france/>
* ''Example 4 (presidential republic):'' Article II, Section 2 of the [[Constitution of the United States]] provides that:
** ''...and he <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[President of the United States|The President]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of [[Federal impeachment in the United States|Impeachment]].''<ref name="us constitution"/>
* ''Example 5 (presidential parliamentary republic):'' Part XI, Article 80 of the [[Constitution of Nauru]]:
** ''The [[President of Nauru|President]] may-''
*** ''(a) grant a pardon, either free or subject to lawful conditions, to a person convicted of an offence;''
*** ''(b) grant to a person a [[Respite (law)|respite]], either indefinite or for a specified period, of the execution of a punishment imposed on that person for an offence;''
*** ''(c) substitute a less severe form of punishment for any punishment imposed on a person for an offence; or''
*** ''(d) remit the whole or a part of a punishment imposed on a person for an offence or of a penalty or forfeiture on account of an offence.''<ref name=nauru/>