Editing Human migration (section)

== Contemporary labor migration theories ==

=== Overview ===
Numerous causes impel migrants to move to another country. For instance, [[globalization]] has increased the demand for workers in order to sustain national economies. Thus one category of [[economic migrant]]s – generally from impoverished developing countries – migrates to obtain sufficient income for survival.<ref name="unfpa.org">{{Cite news|url=https://www.unfpa.org/migration|title=Migration|website=United Nations Population Fund}}</ref>{{request quotation|date=October 2018}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yeoh |first1=Brenda S. A. |last2=Huang |first2=Shirlena |last3=Lam |first3=Theodora |chapter=Transnational family dynamics in Asia |editor1-last=Triandafyllidou |editor1-first=Anna |title=Handbook of Migration and Globalisation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S1RMDwAAQBAJ |series=Handbooks on Globalisation Series |location=Cheltenham, UK |publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]] |date=2018 |page=416 |isbn=978-1785367519 |access-date=2018-10-29 |quote=[...]families may assume transnational morphologies with the strategic intent of ensuring economic survival or maximising social mobility. |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Such migrants often send some of their income homes to family members in the form of [[remittances|economic remittances]], which have become an economic staple in a number of developing countries.<ref>Jason de Parle, "A Good Provider Leaves", ''New York Times'', 22 Apr 2007.</ref> People may also move or are forced to move as a result of conflict, of [[human rights violations|human-rights violations]], of violence, or to escape persecution. In 2014, the UN Refugee agency estimated that around 59.5 million people fell into this category.<ref name="unfpa.org" /> Other reasons people may move include to gain access to opportunities and services or to escape extreme weather. This type of movement, usually from rural to urban areas, may be classed as [[internal migration]].<ref name="unfpa.org" />{{request quotation|date=October 2018}} Sociology-cultural and ego-historical factors also play a major role. In North Africa, for example, emigrating to Europe counts as a sign of social prestige. Moreover, many countries were former [[colony|colonies]]. This means that many have relatives who live legally in the (former) colonial [[metropole|metro pole]] and who often provide important help for immigrants arriving in that metropole.<ref>For example, [[Moroccans in France]], [[Filipino Americans|Filipinos in the United States of America]], [[Koreans in Japan]] or [[Samoans in New Zealand]].</ref>

Relatives may help with job research and with accommodation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geschiere |first=Peter |date=2020 |title="The African family is large, very large" mobility and the flexibility of kinship – examples from Cameroon |journal=Ethnography |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=335–354|doi=10.1177/1466138120938076 |s2cid=221039801 |doi-access=free |hdl=11245.1/2cabfab4-2255-41ec-8133-4a2498454ae7 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The geographical proximity of Africa to Europe and the long historical ties between Northern and Southern Mediterranean countries also prompt many to migrate.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fanack |title=The Key Drivers of North African Illegal Migration to Europe |url=https://chronicle.fanack.com/specials/international-affairs/north-african-illegal-migration-to-europe/ |website=Fanack.com |access-date=14 Jul 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714172715/https://chronicle.fanack.com/specials/international-affairs/north-african-illegal-migration-to-europe/ |archive-date=14 July 2015 |quote=The proximity of North Africa to southern Europe, the liberal mobility policies of most European countries, and the historical links between northern and southern Mediterranean countries are all key factors encouraging people to migrate to Europe.}}</ref> Whether a person decides to move to another country depends on the relative skill premier of the source and host countries. One is speaking of [[positive selection]] when the host country shows a higher skill premium than the source country. On the other hand, negative selection occurs when the source country displays a lower skill premium. The relative skill premia define migrants selectivity. [[Age heaping]] techniques display one method to measure the relative skill premium of a country.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baten |first1=Jörg |last2=Stolz |first2=Yvonne Stolz |title=Brain drain, numeracy and skill premia during the era of mass migration: reassessing the Roy-Borjas model |journal=[[Explorations in Economic History]] |date=2012 |volume=49 |pages=205–220}}</ref> A number of theories attempt to explain the international flow of capital and people from one country to another.<ref name="Jennissen, R 2007">Jennissen, R. 2007. "Causality Chains in the International Migration Systems Approach." ''[[Population Research and Policy Review]]'' 26(4):411–436.</ref>

=== Research contributions ===
Recent academic output on migration comprises mainly journal articles. The long-term trend shows a gradual increase in academic publishing on migration, which is likely to be related to the general expansion of academic literature production, and the increased prominence of migration research.<ref>IOM. 'Chapter 4: Migration research and analysis: Growth, reach and recent contributions.' World Migration Report 2020. p.127. https://www.iom.int/wmr/2020/chapter/04 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118172700/https://www.iom.int/wmr/2020/chapter/04 |date=2021-01-18 }}</ref>
Migration and its research have further changed with the revolution in information and communication technologies.<ref>Oiarzabal, P. J., & Reips, U.-D. (2012). Migration and diaspora in the age of information and communication technologies. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 38(9), 1333–1338. {{doi|10.1080/1369183X.2012.698202}}</ref><ref>Oiarzabal, P. J., & Reips, U.-D. (eds.) (2012). Migration and the Internet: Social networking and diasporas [Special issue]. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 38(9).</ref><ref>Reips, U.-D., and L. Buffardi. 2012. "Studying migrants with the help of the Internet: Methods from psychology." ''[[Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies]]'' 38(9):1405–1424. {{doi|10.1080/1369183X.2012.698208}}</ref>

=== Neoclassical economic theory ===
{{main|Neoclassical economics}}

This migration theory states that the main reason for labour migration is wage difference between two geographic locations. These wage differences are usually linked to [[Geographic mobility|geographic labour demand and supply]]. It can be said that areas with a shortage of labour but an excess of capital have a high relative wage while areas with a high labour supply and a dearth of capital have a low relative wage. Labour tends to flow from low-wage areas to high-wage areas. Often, with this flow of labour comes changes in the sending and the receiving country. Neoclassical economic theory best describes transnational migration because it is not confined by international immigration laws and similar governmental regulations.<ref name="Jennissen, R 2007" />

=== Dual labor market theory ===
Dual labour market theory states that pull factors in more developed countries mainly cause migration. This theory assumes that the labour markets in these developed countries consist of two segments: the primary market, which requires high-skilled labour, and the secondary market, which is very labour-intensive, requiring low-skilled workers. This theory assumes that migration from less developed countries into more developed countries results from a pull created by a need for labour in the developed countries in their secondary market. [[Migrant worker]]s are needed to fill the lowest rung of the labour market because the native labourers do not want to do these jobs as they present a lack of mobility. This creates a need for migrant workers. Furthermore, the initial dearth in available labour pushes wages up, making migration even more enticing.<ref name="Jennissen, R 2007"/>

=== New economics of labor migration ===
This theory states that migration flows and patterns cannot be explained solely at the level of individual workers and their economic incentives but that wider social entities must also be considered. One such social entity is the household. Migration can be viewed as a result of risk aversion from a household that has insufficient income. In this case, the household needs extra capital that can be achieved through remittances sent back by family members who participate in migrant labour abroad. These [[remittances]] can also have a broader effect on the economy of the sending country as a whole as they bring in capital.<ref name="Jennissen, R 2007"/> Recent research has examined a decline in US interstate migration from 1991 to 2011, theorising that the reduced interstate migration is due to a decline in the geographic specificity of occupations and an increase in workers' ability to learn about other locations before moving there, through both information technology and inexpensive travel.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.minneapolisfed.org/research/wp/wp697.pdf |journal=[[Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis]] |title=Understanding the Long-Run Decline in Interstate Migration |date=April 2012 |access-date=18 May 2019 |first1=Greg |last1=Kaplan |first2=Sam |last2=Schulhofer-Wohl |author2-link=Sam Schulhofer-Wohl |pages=58}}</ref> Other researchers find that the location-specific nature of housing is more important than moving costs in determining labour reallocation.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.chicagofed.org/digital_assets/publications/working_papers/2010/wp2010_18.pdf |journal=[[Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago]] |title=The Role of Housing in Labour Reallocation |date=29 November 2010 |access-date=18 May 2019 |first1=Morris |last1=Davis |first2=Jonas |last2=Fisher |first3=Marcelo |last3=Veracierto |pages=50}}</ref>

=== Relative deprivation theory ===
{{main|Relative deprivation}}
Relative deprivation theory states that awareness of the income difference between neighbours or other households in the migrant-sending community is essential in migration. The incentive to migrate is a lot higher in areas with a high level of [[economic inequality]]. In the short run, remittances may increase inequality, but in the long run, they may decrease it. There are two stages of migration for workers: first, they invest in human capital formation, and then they try to capitalise on their investments. In this way, successful migrants may use their new capital to provide better schooling for their children and better homes for their families. Successful high-skilled emigrants may serve as an example for neighbours and potential migrants who hope to achieve that level of success.<ref name="Jennissen, R 2007"/>

=== World systems theory ===
[[World-systems theory]] looks at migration from a global perspective. It explains that interaction between different societies can be an important factor in social change. Trade with one country, which causes an economic decline in another, may create incentive to migrate to a country with a more vibrant economy. It can be argued that even after decolonisation, the economic dependence of former colonies remains on mother countries. However, this view of [[international trade]] is controversial, and some argue that free trade can reduce migration between developing and developed countries. It can be argued that the developed countries import labour-intensive goods, which causes an increase in the employment of unskilled workers in the less developed countries, decreasing the outflow of migrant workers. Exporting capital-intensive goods from rich countries to developing countries also equalises income and employment conditions, thus slowing migration. In either direction, this theory can be used to explain migration between countries that are geographically far apart.<ref name="Jennissen, R 2007"/>

=== Osmosis theory ===
Based on the [[history of human migration]]<ref>Djelti S, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320427737_The_Evolution_of_the_Human_Migration_Determinants_1_Draft_paper "The Evolution of the Human Migration Determinants"] draft paper presented in the international conference on "Crossing Boundaries: Youth, Migration, and Development", At Alakhawayn University in Ifran, Morocco – March 2–4, 2017</ref> osmosis theory studies the evolution of its natural determinants. In this theory migration is divided into two main types: simple and complicated. The simple migration is divided, in its turn, into diffusion, stabilisation and concentration periods. During these periods, water availability, adequate climate, security and population density represent the natural determinants of human migration. The complicated migration is characterised by the speedy evolution and the emergence of new sub-determinants, notably earning, unemployment, networks, and migration policies. Osmosis theory<ref>Djelti S, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320427688_Osmosis_the_unifying_theory_of_human_migration "Osmosis: the Unifying Theory of Human Migration"], ''Revue Algérienne d’Economie et du Management'' Vol. 08, N°: 02 (2017)</ref> explains analogically human migration by the biophysical phenomenon of [[osmosis]]. In this respect, the countries are represented by [[animal cells]], the borders by the [[semipermeable membranes]] and the humans by [[ions]] of water. According to the theory, according to the osmosis phenomenon, humans migrate from countries with less migration pressure to countries with high migration pressure. To measure the latter, the natural determinants of human migration replace the variables of the [[second principle of thermodynamics]] used to measure the [[osmotic pressure]].