Editing Job satisfaction (section)

== Influencing factors ==

=== Environmental factors ===

==== Communication overload and underload ====
One of the most important aspects of an individual's work in a modern organization concerns the management of communication demands that they encounter on the job.<ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite journal | last1 = Krayer | first1 = K.J. | last2 = Westbrook | first2 = L. | year = 1986 | title = The relationship between communication load and job satisfaction | journal = World Communication | volume = 15 | pages = 85–99 }}</ref> Demands can be characterized as a communication load, which refers to "the rate and complexity of communication inputs an individual must process in a particular time frame."<ref name=autogenerated1>Farace, R. V., Monge, P. R., & Russell, H. M. (1977). Communicating and organizing. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.</ref>

Individuals in an organization can experience communication overload and communication underload, which can affect their level of job satisfaction. Communication overload can occur when "an individual receives too many messages in a short period of time," resulting in unprocessed information or when an individual faces more complex messages that are more difficult to process.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> Due to this process, "given an individual's style of work and motivation to complete a task, when more inputs exist than outputs, the individual perceives a condition of overload,"<ref name=autogenerated4 /> which can be positively or negatively related to job satisfaction. In comparison, communication underload can occur when messages or inputs are sent below the individual's ability to process them.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

According to the ideas of communication overload and underload, if an individual does not receive enough input on the job or is unsuccessful in processing these inputs, the individual is more likely to become dissatisfied, aggravated, and unhappy with their work, leading to a low level of job satisfaction.

==== Superior-subordinate communication ====
{{Main|Superior-subordinate communication}}
Superior-subordinate communication is an important influence on job satisfaction in the workplace. The way in which subordinates perceive a supervisor's behavior can positively or negatively influence job satisfaction. Communication behavior such as facial expression, eye contact, vocal expression, and body movement is crucial to the superior-subordinate relationship.<ref name="Teven, J. J. 2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Teven | first1 = J. J. | year = 2007 | title = Effects of supervisor social influence, nonverbal immediacy, and biological sex on subordinates' perceptions of job satisfaction, liking, and supervisor credibility | journal = Communication Quarterly | volume = 55 | issue = 2| pages = 155–177 | doi = 10.1080/01463370601036036 | s2cid = 143485769 }}</ref> Nonverbal messages play a central role in interpersonal interactions with respect to impression formation, deception, attraction, social influence, and emotion.<ref>Burgoon, J.K., Buller, D.B., and Woodall, W.G. (1996) Nonverbal Communication, New York: McGraw-Hill</ref> Nonverbal immediacy from the supervisor helps to increase interpersonal involvement with their subordinates, impacting job satisfaction. The manner in which supervisors communicate with their subordinates nonverbally may be more important than the verbal content.<ref name="Teven, J. J. 2007"/> Individuals who dislike and think negatively about their supervisor are less willing to communicate or have motivation to work, whereas individuals who like and think positively of their supervisor are more likely to communicate and are satisfied with their job and work environment. A supervisor who uses nonverbal immediacy, friendliness, and open communication lines is more likely to receive positive feedback and high job satisfaction from a subordinate. Conversely, a supervisor who is antisocial, unfriendly, and unwilling to communicate will naturally receive negative feedback and create low job satisfaction in their subordinates.

=== Strategic employee recognition ===
A Watson Wyatt Worldwide study identified a positive outcome between a collegial and flexible work environment and an increase in shareholder value. Suggesting that employee satisfaction is directly related to financial gain.
Over 40 percent of the companies listed in the top 100 of ''Fortune'' magazine's "America's Best Companies to Work For" also appear on the Fortune 500. It is possible that successful workers enjoy working at successful companies, however, the Watson Wyatt Worldwide Human Capital Index study claims that effective human resources practices, such as [[employee value proposition|employee recognition]] programs, lead to positive financial outcomes more often than positive financial outcomes lead to good practices.<ref name="Corporate Leadership Council">{{cite web|title=KEY FINDINGS Linking Employee Satisfaction with Productivity, Performance, and Customer Satisfaction .|url=http://www.keepem.com/doc_files/clc_articl_on_productivity.pdf|access-date=11 July 2012}}</ref>

Employee recognition is not only about gifts and points. It's about changing the [[corporate culture]] in order to meet goals and initiatives and most importantly to connect employees to the company's core values and beliefs. Strategic employee recognition is seen as the most important program not only to improve [[employee retention]] and motivation but also to positively influence the financial situation.<ref>[http://www.cfo-insight.com/human-capital-career/talent-management/how-employee-recognition-programmes-improves-retention/ How Employee Recognition Programmes Improve Retention] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116050945/http://www.cfo-insight.com/human-capital-career/talent-management/how-employee-recognition-programmes-improves-retention/ |date=2013-01-16 }} ''CFO Insight Magazine'', January 2013</ref> The difference between the traditional approach (gifts and points) and strategic recognition is the ability to serve as a serious business influencer that can advance a company's strategic objectives in a measurable way. "The vast majority of companies want to be innovative, coming up with new products, business models and better ways of doing things. However, innovation is not so easy to achieve. A CEO cannot just order it, and so it will be. You have to carefully manage an organization so that, over time, innovations will emerge."<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/sites/freekvermeulen/2011/05/30/five-mistaken-beliefs-business-leaders-have-about-innovation/ Five mistaken beliefs business leaders have about innovation] from Freek Vermeulen in ''Forbes'', May 2011</ref>

=== Individual factors ===

==== Emotion ====
[[Mood (psychology)|Mood]] and [[emotions in the workplace|emotions at work]] are related to job satisfaction. Moods tend to be longer lasting but often weaker states of uncertain origin, while emotions are often more intense, short-lived and have a clear object or cause.<ref>Weiss HM, Cropanzano R. (1996). Affective events theory: a theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. ''Research in Organizational Behavior'' 8: 1±74</ref>

Some research suggests moods are related to overall job satisfaction.<ref>Brief AP, Roberson L. (1989). Job attitude organization: an exploratory study. ''Journal of Applied Social Psychology'' 19: 717±727.</ref><ref>Weiss HM, Nicholas JP, Daus CS. (1999). An examination of the joint effects of affective experiences and job beliefs on job satisfaction and variations in affective experiences over time. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes'' 78: 1±24</ref> Positive and [[negative emotion]]s were also found to be significantly related to overall job satisfaction.<ref name = Fisher>Fisher D. (2000). Mood and emotions while working: missing pieces of job satisfaction? ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'' 21, 185±202</ref>

Frequency of experiencing net positive emotion will be a better predictor of overall job satisfaction than will intensity of positive emotion when it is experienced.<ref name=Fisher/>

[[Emotion work]] (or emotion management) refers to various types of efforts to manage emotional states and displays. Emotion management includes all of the conscious and unconscious efforts to increase, maintain, or decrease one or more components of an emotion. Although early studies of the consequences of emotional work emphasized its harmful effects on workers, studies of workers in a variety of occupations suggest that the consequences of emotional work are not uniformly negative.<ref>Pugliesi K. (1999). The Consequences of Emotional Labor: Effects on Work Stress, Job Satisfaction, and Weil-BeinMotivation and Emotion, Vol. 23/2</ref>

It was found that suppression of unpleasant emotions decreases job satisfaction and the amplification of pleasant emotions increases job satisfaction.<ref name = cote >Cote S., Morgan LM (2002). A longitudinal analysis of the association between emotion regulation, job satisfaction, and intentions to quit. Journal of Organizational Behavior
vol 23, 947–962</ref>

The understanding of how emotion regulation relates to job satisfaction concerns two models:
# [[Emotional dissonance]]: a state of discrepancy between public displays of emotions and internal experiences of emotions,<ref>Ashforth, B. E., & Humphrey, R. H. (1993). Emotional labor in service roles: the influence of identity. Academy of
Management Review, 18, 88–115</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rafaeli | first1 = A. | last2 = Sutton | first2 = R. I. | year = 1989 | title = The expression of emotion in organizational life | journal = Research in Organizational Behavior | volume = 11 | pages = 1–42 }}</ref> that often follows the process of emotion regulation. Emotional dissonance is associated with high emotional exhaustion, low organizational commitment, and low job satisfaction.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Abraham | first1 = R | year = 1999 | title = The impact of emotional dissonance on organizational commitment and intention to turnover | journal = Journal of Psychology | volume = 133 | issue = 4| pages = 441–455 | doi=10.1080/00223989909599754| pmid = 10412221 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Morris | first1 = J. A. | last2 = Feldman | first2 = D. C. | year = 1997 | title = Managing emotions in the workplace | journal = Journal of Managerial Issues | volume = 9 | pages = 257–274 }}</ref>
# Social interaction model: taking the social interaction perspective, workers' emotion regulation might beget responses from others during interpersonal encounters that subsequently impact their own job satisfaction. For example, the accumulation of favorable responses to displays of pleasant emotions might positively affect job satisfaction.<ref name=cote/>

==== Genetics ====
The influence that genetics has had on a variety of individual differences is well documented.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rowe | first1 = D. C. | year = 1987 | title = Resolving the person–situation debate: Invitation to an interdisciplinary dialogue | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 42 | issue = 3| pages = 218–227 | doi=10.1037/0003-066x.42.3.218}}</ref>  Some research suggests genetics also play a role in the intrinsic, direct experiences of job satisfaction like challenge or achievement (as opposed to extrinsic, environmental factors like working conditions).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Wen-Dong |last2=Stanek |first2=Kevin C. |last3=Zhang |first3=Zhen |last4=Ones |first4=Deniz S. |last5=McGue |first5=Matt |date=November 2016 |title=Are genetic and environmental influences on job satisfaction stable over time? A three-wave longitudinal twin study. |journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |language=en |volume=101 |issue=11 |pages=1598–1619 |doi=10.1037/apl0000057 |pmid=27504661 |issn=1939-1854|doi-access=free }}</ref> Notably, Arvey et al. (1989) examined job satisfaction in 34 pairs of monozygotic twins who were reared apart to test for the existence of genetic influence on job satisfaction. After correcting for age and gender, they obtained an intra-class correlation of .31. This suggests that 31% of variance in job satisfaction has a genetic basis, the estimate would be slightly larger if corrected for measurement error. They also found that evidence of genetic heritability for job characteristics, such as complexity level, motor skill requirements, and physical demands.<ref name="Job satisfaction: Environmental and"/>

==== Personality ====
Some research suggests an association between personality and job satisfaction.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Judge | first1 = T. A. | last2 = Heller | first2 = D. | last3 = Mount | first3 = M. K. | year = 2002 | title = Five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 87 | issue = 3| pages = 530–541 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.87.3.530| pmid = 12090610 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.461.558 | s2cid = 10486565 }}</ref> Specifically, this research describes the role of [[negative affectivity]] and [[positive affectivity]]. Negative affectivity is related strongly to the personality trait of [[neuroticism]]. Individuals high in negative affectivity are more prone to experience less job satisfaction. Positive affectivity is related strongly to the personality trait of [[extraversion]]. Those high in positive affectivity are more prone to be satisfied in most dimensions of their life, including their job. Differences in affectivity likely impact how individuals will perceive objective job circumstances like pay and working conditions, thus affecting their satisfaction in that job.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brief | first1 = A. P. | last2 = Weiss | first2 = H. M. | year = 2002 | title = Organizational behavior: Affect in the workplace | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 53 | pages = 279–307 | doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135156| pmid = 11752487 }}</ref>

There are two personality factors related to job satisfaction, [[Social alienation|alienation]] and [[locus of control]].  Employees who have an internal locus of control and feel less alienated are more likely to experience job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment.  A meta-analysis of 187 studies of job satisfaction concluded that high satisfaction was positively associated with internal locus of control. The study also showed characteristics like high [[Machiavellianism (psychology)|Machiavellianism]], [[narcissism]], [[trait anger]], [[type A personality]] dimensions of achievement striving and impatience/irritability, are also related to job satisfaction.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bruk-Lee | first1 = V. | last2 = Khoury | first2 = H. A. | last3 = Nixon | first3 = A. E. | last4 = Goh | first4 = A. | last5 = Spector | first5 = P. E. | year = 2009 | title = Replicating and extending past personality/job satisfaction meta-analyses | journal = Human Performance | volume = 22 | issue = 2| pages = 156–189 | doi=10.1080/08959280902743709| s2cid = 143388641 }}</ref>

=== Psychological well-being ===
[[Psychological well-being]] (PWB) is defined as "the overall effectiveness of an individual's psychological functioning" as related to primary facets of one's life: work, family, community, etc.<ref name="Wright, T. A. 2000">{{cite journal | last1 = Wright | first1 = T. A. | last2 = Cropanzano | first2 = R. | year = 2000 | title = Psychological well-being and job satisfaction as predictors of job performance | journal = Journal of Occupational Health Psychology | volume = 5 | issue = 1| pages = 84–94 | doi = 10.1037/1076-8998.5.1.84 | pmid = 10658888 | s2cid = 19053832 }}</ref>  There are three defining characteristics of PWB.  First, it is a [[Phenomenology (psychology)|phenomenological]] event, meaning that people are happy when they subjectively believe themselves to be so.  Second, well-being involves some emotional conditions.  Particularly, psychologically well people are more prone to experience positive emotions and less prone to experience [[negative emotion]]s. Third, well-being refers to one's life as a whole. It is a global evaluation.<ref name="Wright, T. A. 2000"/>  PWB is primarily measured using the eight-item Index of Psychological Well-Being developed by Berkman (IPWB). IPWB asks respondents to reply to a series a questions on how often they felt "pleased about accomplishing something", "bored", "depressed or unhappy", etc.<ref name="Wright, T. A. 2000"/>

PWB in the workplace plays an important role in determining job satisfaction and has attracted much research attention in recent years.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baptiste | first1 = N. R. | year = 2008 | title = Tightening the link between employee wellbeing at work and performance: A new dimension for HRM | journal = Management Decision | volume = 46 | issue = 2| pages = 284–309 | doi = 10.1108/00251740810854168 }}</ref> These studies have focused on the effects of PWB on job satisfaction as well as [[job performance]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Robertson | first1 = I. T. | last2 = Birch | first2 = A. J. | last3 = Cooper | first3 = C. L. | year = 2012 | title = Job and work attitudes, engagement and employee performance: Where does psychological well-being fit in? | journal = Leadership & Organization Development Journal | volume = 33 | issue = 3| pages = 224–232 | doi = 10.1108/01437731211216443 }}</ref>  One study noted that because job satisfaction is specific to one's job, the research that examined job satisfaction had not taken into account aspects of one's life external to the job.<ref name="Wright, T. A. 2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Wright | first1 = T. A. | last2 = Cropanzano | first2 = R. | last3 = Bonett | first3 = D. G. | year = 2007 | title = The moderating role of employee positive well being on the relation between job satisfaction and job performance | journal = Journal of Occupational Health Psychology | volume = 12 | issue = 2| pages = 93–104 | doi = 10.1037/1076-8998.12.2.93 | pmid = 17469992 | hdl = 10983/24771 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>  Prior studies had focused only on the work environment as the main determinant of job satisfaction. Ultimately, to better understand job satisfaction (and its close relative, job performance), it is important to take into account an individual's PWB. Research published in 2000 showed a significant correlation between PWB and job satisfaction (r = .35, p < .01).<ref name="Wright, T. A. 2000"/> A follow-up study by the same authors in 2007 revealed similar results (r = .30, p < .01).<ref name="Wright, T. A. 2007"/>  In addition, these studies show that PWB is a better predictor of job performance than job satisfaction alone. Job satisfaction more associate to mental health than physical health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Faragher|first1=E. B.|last2=Cass|first2=M.|last3=Cooper|first3=C. L.|date=2005-02-01|title=The relationship between job satisfaction and health: a meta-analysis|url=https://oem.bmj.com/content/62/2/105|journal=Occupational and Environmental Medicine|language=en|volume=62|issue=2|pages=105–112|doi=10.1136/oem.2002.006734|issn=1351-0711|pmc=1740950|pmid=15657192}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cass|first1=Monica H.|last2=Siu|first2=Oi Ling|last3=Faragher|first3=E. Brian|last4=Cooper|first4=Cary L.|date=2003|title=A meta-analysis of the relationship between job satisfaction and employee health in Hong Kong|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/smi.959|journal=Stress and Health|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=79–95|doi=10.1002/smi.959|issn=1532-2998}}</ref>