Editing July Monarchy (section)

=={{Anchor|13 March}} The {{lang|fr|Casimir Périer|italic=no}} government (13 March 1831 – 16 May 1832)==
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Having succeeded in outdoing the {{lang|fr|Parti du Mouvement}}, the "Citizen King" called to power the {{lang|fr|Parti de la Résistance}}. However, {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} was not really much more comfortable with one side than with the other, being closer to the center. Furthermore, he felt no sympathy for its leader, the banker [[Casimir Pierre Périer]], who replaced {{lang|fr|Laffitte|italic=no}} on 13 March 1831 as head of the government. His aim was more to re-establish order in the country, letting the {{lang|fr|Parti de la Résistance}} assume responsibility for unpopular measures.

{{lang|fr|Périer|italic=no}}, however, managed to impose his conditions on the king, including the pre-eminence of the President of the Council over other ministers, and his right to call cabinet councils outside of the actual presence of the king. Furthermore, {{lang|fr|Casimir Perier|italic=no}} secured agreement that the liberal Prince Royal, {{lang|fr|[[Ferdinand-Philippe d'Orléans]]|italic=no}}, would cease to participate to the Council of Ministers. Despite this, {{lang|fr|Perier|italic=no}} valued the king's prestige, calling on him, on 21 September 1831, to move from his family residence, the {{lang|fr|[[Palais-Royal]]|italic=no}}, to the royal palace, the {{lang|fr|[[Palais des Tuileries|Tuileries]]|italic=no}}.

The banker {{lang|fr|Périer|italic=no}} established the new government's principles on 18 March 1831: ministerial solidarity and the authority of the government over the administration: "the principle of the July Revolution... is not insurrection... it is resistance to the aggression the power"<ref>{{langx|fr|«&thinsp;le principe de la révolution de juillet [...] ce n'est pas l'insurrection, [...] c'est la résistance à l'agression du pouvoir&thinsp;»}}, {{harvnb|Antonetti|2002|p=656}}</ref> and, internationally, "a pacific attitude and the respect of the non-intervention principle". The vast majority of the Chamber applauded the new government and granted him a comfortable majority. {{lang|fr|Périer|italic=no}} harnessed the support of the cabinet through oaths of solidarity and strict discipline for dissenters. He excluded reformers from official discourse, and abandoned the regime's unofficial policy of mediating in labor disputes in favor of a strict [[laissez-faire]] policy that favored employers.

=== Civil unrest (Canut Revolt) and repression ===
{{main|Canut revolts}}
[[File:Revolte des Canuts - Lyon 1831 - 1.jpg|thumb|right|320px|The [[Canut Revolt]] in [[Lyon]], October 1831]]
On 14 March 1831, on the initiative of a patriotic society created by the mayor of [[Metz]], {{lang|fr|[[Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte|Jean-Baptiste Bouchotte]]|italic=no}}, the opposition's press launched a campaign to gather funds to create a national association aimed at struggling against any [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]] and the risks of foreign invasion. All the major figures of the Republican Left ({{lang|fr|La Fayette|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|Dupont de l'Eure|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Jean Maximilien Lamarque]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Odilon Barrot]]|italic=no}}, etc.) supported it. Local committees were created all over France, leading the new president of the Council, {{lang|fr|Casimir Périer|italic=no}}, to issue a circular prohibiting civil servants from membership of this association, which he accused of challenging the state itself by implicitly accusing it of not fulfilling its proper duties.

In the beginning of April 1831, the government took some unpopular measures, forcing several important personalities to resign: {{lang|fr|Odilon Barrot|italic=no}} was dismissed from the [[Council of State (France)|Council of State]], General {{lang|fr|Lamarque|italic=no}}'s military command suppressed, {{lang|fr|Bouchotte|italic=no}} and the {{lang|fr|[[Alexandre de Laborde|Marquis de Laborde]]|italic=no}} forced to resign. When on 15 April 1831 the {{lang|fr|[[Cour d'assises]]}} acquitted several young Republicans ({{lang|fr|[[Éléonore-Louis Godefroi Cavaignac|Godefroy Cavaignac]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Joseph Guinard]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|[[Audry de Puyraveau]]|italic=no}}'s son), mostly officers of the National Guard who had been arrested during the December 1830 troubles following the trial of Charles X's ministers, new riots acclaimed the news on 15–16 April. But {{lang|fr|Périer|italic=no}}, implementing the 10 April 1831 law outlawing public meetings, used the military as well as the National Guard to dissolve the crowds. In May, the government used [[fire hose]]s as [[crowd control]] techniques for the first time.

Another riot, started on the {{lang|fr|[[rue Saint-Denis (Paris)|Rue Saint-Denis]]|italic=no}} on 14 June 1831, degenerated into an open battle against the National Guard, assisted by the [[Dragoons]] and the infantry. The riots continued on 15 and 16 June.

The major unrest, however, took place in [[Lyon]] with the [[Canuts Revolt]], started on 21 November 1831, and during which parts of the National Guard took the demonstrators' side. In two days, the Canuts took control of the city and expelled {{lang|fr|[[François Roguet|General Roguet]]|italic=no}} and the mayor {{lang|fr|[[Victor Prunelle]]|italic=no}}. On 25 November {{lang|fr|Casimir Périer|italic=no}} announced to the Chamber of Deputies that {{lang|fr|[[Marshal Soult]]|italic=no}}, assisted by the Prince Royal, would immediately march on Lyon with 20,000 men. They entered the city on 3 December re-establishing order without any bloodshed.

Civil unrest, however, continued, and not only in Paris. On 11 March 1832, [[sedition]] exploded in [[Grenoble]] during the [[carnival]]. The prefect had canceled the festivities after a grotesque mask of {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} had been displayed, leading to popular demonstrations. The prefect then tried to have the National Guard disperse the crowd, but the latter refused to go, forcing him to call on the army. The 35th regiment of infantry ({{lang|fr|infanterie de ligne}}) obeyed the orders, but this in turn led the population to demand their expulsion from the city. This was done on 15 March and the 35th regiment was replaced by the 6th regiment, from Lyon. When {{lang|fr|Casimir Perier|italic=no}} learnt the news, he dissolved the National Guard of Grenoble and immediately recalled the 35th regiment to the city.

Beside this continuing unrest, in every province, {{lang|fr|[[Dauphiné]]|italic=no}}, [[Picardy]], in {{lang|fr|[[Carcassonne]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Alsace]]|italic=no}}, etc., various Republican conspiracies threatened the government (conspiracy of the {{lang|fr|Tours de Notre-Dame}} in January 1832, of the {{lang|fr|rue des Prouvaires}} in February 1832, etc.) Even the trials of suspects were seized on by the Republicans as an opportunity to address the people: at the trial of the [[Blanquist]] {{lang|fr|[[Société des Amis du peuple]]}} in January 1832, {{lang|fr|[[Raspail]]|italic=no}} harshly criticized the king while {{lang|fr|[[Auguste Blanqui]]|italic=no}} gave free vein to his socialist ideas. All of the accused denounced the government's [[tyranny]], the incredibly high cost of [[Louis-Philippe's civil list]], police persecutions, etc. The omnipresence of the [[French police]], organized during the [[French First Empire]] by {{lang|fr|[[Joseph Fouché|Fouché]]|italic=no}}, was depicted by the Legitimist writer {{lang|fr|[[Honoré de Balzac|Balzac]]|italic=no}} in {{lang|fr|[[Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes]]}}. The strength of the opposition led the Prince Royal to shift his view somewhat further to the right.

=== Legislative elections of 1831 ===
{{further|French legislative election, 1831}}
In the second half of May 1831, {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}}, accompanied by [[Marshal Soult]], started an official visit to [[Normandy]] and [[Picardy]], where he was well received. From 6 June to 1 July 1831, he traveled in the east, where there was stronger Republican and [[Bonapartist]] activity, along with his two elder sons, the [[Ferdinand-Philippe d'Orléans|Prince Royal]] and the [[Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours|Duke of Nemours]], as well as with the {{lang|fr|[[comte d'Argout]]|italic=no}}. The king stopped in {{lang|fr|[[Meaux]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Château-Thierry]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Châlons-sur-Marne]]|italic=no}} (renamed {{lang|fr|[[Châlons-en-Champagne]]|italic=no}} in 1998), {{lang|fr|[[Valmy]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Verdun]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|[[Metz]]|italic=no}}. There, in the name of the municipal council, the mayor made a very political speech in which he expressed the wish to have [[Peerage of France|peerages]] abolished, adding that France should intervene in Poland to assist the [[November Uprising]] against Russia. Louis-Philippe flatly rejected all of these aspirations, stating that the municipal councils and the National Guard had no standing in such matters. The king continued his visit to {{lang|fr|[[Nancy, France|Nancy]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Lunéville]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Strasbourg]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Colmar]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Mulhouse]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Besançon]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|[[Troyes]]|italic=no}}, and his visits were, on the whole, occasions to re-affirm his authority.

{{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} decided in the {{lang|fr|[[Château de Saint-Cloud]]|italic=no}}, on 31 May 1831, to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, fixing legislative elections for 5 July 1831. However, he signed another ordinance on 23 June in [[Colmar]] in order to have the elections put back to 23 July 1831, so as to avoid the risk of Republican agitation during the commemorations of the July Revolution. The [[1831 French legislative election|general election of 1831]] took place without incident, according to the new electoral law of 19 April 1831. However, the results disappointed the king and the president of the Council, {{lang|fr|Périer|italic=no}}: more than half of the outgoing deputies were re-elected, and their political positions were unknown. The [[Legitimist]]s obtained 104 seats, the [[Orléanist]] Liberals 282 and the [[Republicanism in France|Republicans]] 73.

On 23 July 1831, the king set out {{lang|fr|Casimir Périer|italic=no}}'s program in the [[speech from the Throne]]: strict application of the Charter at home and strict defense of the interests of France and its independence abroad.

The deputies in the chamber then voted for their [[president of the Chamber of Deputies|President]], electing {{lang|fr|[[Baron Girod de l'Ain]]|italic=no}}, the government's candidate, on the second round. He gained 181 votes to the banker {{lang|fr|[[Jacques Laffitte|Laffitte]]|italic=no}}'s 176. But {{lang|fr|[[Dupont de l'Eure]]|italic=no}} gained the first vice presidency with 182 voices out of a total of 344, defeating the government's candidate, {{lang|fr|[[André Dupin]]|italic=no}}, who had only 153 votes. {{lang|fr|Casimir Périer|italic=no}}, who considered that his parliamentary majority was not strong enough, decided to resign.

{{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} thereafter turned towards {{lang|fr|[[Odilon Barrot]]|italic=no}}, who refused to assume governmental responsibilities, pointing out that he had only a hundred deputies in the Chamber. However, during the 2 and 2 August 1831 elections of {{lang|fr|questeurs}} and secretaries, the Chamber elected mostly government candidates such as {{lang|fr|[[André Dupin]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|[[Benjamin Delessert]]|italic=no}}, who obtained a strong majority against a far-left candidate, {{lang|fr|[[Eusèbe de Salverte]]|italic=no}}. Finally, [[William I of the Netherlands]]'s decision to invade [[Belgium]] – the [[Belgian Revolution]] had taken place the preceding year – on 2 August 1831, constrained {{lang|fr|Casimir Perier|italic=no}} to remain in power in order to respond to the Belgians' request for help.

During the parliamentary debates concerning France's imminent intervention in Belgium, several deputies, led by {{lang|fr|[[Baron Bignon]]|italic=no}}, unsuccessfully requested similar intervention to support Polish independence. However, at the domestic level, {{lang|fr|Casimir Perier|italic=no}} decided to back down before the dominant opposition, and satisfied an old demand of the Left by abolishing hereditary peerages. Finally, the 2 March 1832 law on {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}}'s [[civil list]] fixed it at 12 million francs a year, and one million for the Prince Royal, the Duke of {{lang|fr|Orléans|italic=no}}. The 28 April 1832 law, named after the Justice Minister {{lang|fr|[[Félix Barthe]]|italic=no}}, reformed the 1810 [[French Penal Code of 1810|Penal Code]] and the {{lang|fr|[[Code d'instruction criminelle]]}}.

=== The 1832 cholera epidemic ===
The [[cholera]] [[pandemic]] that originated in India in 1815 reached Paris around 20 March 1832 and killed more than 13,000 people in April. The pandemic would last until September 1832, killing in total 100,000 in France, with 20,000 in Paris alone.<ref name=cholera>{{cite web|url=http://www.amicale-genealogie.org/Histoires_temps-passe/Epidemies/chol01.htm |title=Le Choléra |first=Amicale Généalogie |last=La Petite Gazette Généalogique |access-date=10 April 2006 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060223134543/http://www.amicale-genealogie.org/Histoires_temps-passe/Epidemies/chol01.htm |archive-date=23 February 2006 }}</ref> The disease, the origins of which were unknown at the time, provoked a popular panic. The people of Paris suspected poisoners, while scavengers and beggars revolted against the authoritarian measures of [[public health]].

According to the 20th-century historian and philosopher {{lang|fr|[[Michel Foucault]]|italic=no}}, the cholera outbreak was first fought by what he called "social medicine", which focused on flux, circulation of air, location of cemeteries, etc. All of these concerns, born of the [[miasma theory of disease]], were thus concerned with [[urbanism|urbanist]] concerns of the management of populations.

Cholera also struck the royal princess {{lang|fr|[[Adélaïde d'Orléans|Madame Adélaïde]]|italic=no}}, as well as {{lang|fr|[[d'Argout]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|[[Guizot]]|italic=no}}. {{lang|fr|Casimir Périer|italic=no}}, who on 1 April 1832 visited the patients at the {{lang|fr|[[Hôtel-Dieu de Paris|Hôtel-Dieu]]|italic=no}} with the Prince Royal, contracted the disease. He resigned his ministerial activities before dying of cholera on 16 May 1832.