Editing Kerala model (section)

=== Residual inequality ===
Kerala has had consistently high levels of development when compared to the rest of the country. The state has the highest record of per capita consumer expenditure, and this level has been progressively increasing since 1993.<ref name=":15" /> Kerala has now begun a high growth regime driven mainly by its service and construction industries. The all-India and statewise trend in the estimates of poverty headcount ratio (HCR) and [[Gini coefficient]] show that Kerala reduced its HCR by 10.3% between 1988-1993 and then again by another 12.2% in the 11 years proceeding until 2004–2005. Comparatively, [[Himachal Pradesh]]—which did not benefit from the same Gulf boom that Kerala did—reduced its post-reform [[rural poverty]] to a lower HCR of 10.9% in 2004–05. Moreover, though there was a marginal decline in the Gini coefficient for rural Kerala in 1993-1994 compared to previous years, there is a jump to 38.3% in 2004-2005—the highest figure compared to all-India figures and all other states. The urban Gini coefficient for Kerala in 2004-05 was 41%, second only to Chhattisgarh. Comparisons of scheduled tribes, castes, and religions also show growing income disparities, reflected by increasing incidence of suicides, family violence, gang activity, and alcoholism, among others.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Oommen |first=M. A. |date=2008 |title=Reforms and the Kerala Model |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40276897 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=22–25 |jstor=40276897 |issn=0012-9976}}</ref>

Even public provisioning of equitable access to healthcare and education, which are the foundation of the Kerala model, have decreased overall. The percentage of [[Public Spending|public spending]] on education to total government expenditure decreased from 29.28% in 1982–83 to 23.17% 1992-93 and 17.97% in 2005–06.<ref name="Véron 601–617"/> In terms of education, the educational expenditure size of 6% which Kerala followed in the 1960s and 70s declined to just over 4% in the 1980s and below that in 11 of the 16 years during the post-reform regime. While decline of public expenditure on education decreased during the pre-reform period (from 1980 to 1991) at a rate of 0.97% yearly, the post-reform period has seen an even sharper decline of 2.13% a year. With regard to public expenditure on health and family welfare, there too has been an equally sharp fall in spending, from 11.67% of [[State Domestic Product|state domestic product]] (SDP) to 1983–84 to 9.94% in 1989-90 and down to 6.36% in 2005–06. [[Social security]] entitlements as a percentage of SDP fell significantly too, while it was increasing at a rate of 1.83% in the pre-reform period it fell to 0.15% during the reform period. Under the current [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] regime there has been accelerated commercialization of  the education and health sectors—which has altered the equity base of the Kerala model as a whole.<ref name=":15" /> For example, the proportion of students at [[Private schools|private unaided schools]] rose from 2.5% of the 5.9 million total student population in 1990–91 to 7.4% in 2005-06. This is coupled with a 7.5% of intake in government schools over the same time, and only those with the means to pay high fees can go to these private unaided schools.<ref name=":16" />

The [[Fishery|marine fishery sector]] in Kerala is an example of the extent to which disparities still exist despite the Kerala Model's emphasis placed on [[Equality of outcome|equality]]. Though fish and fisheries have a very significant place within Kerala as a whole, fishing communities in Kerala have not benefited from state's overall efforts at improving quality of life nor the increased value of output in the sector. Data from 1965 to 1975 indicate an eleven-fold increase in the value of output from Rs 68.5 million to 741.4 million in current prices.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal |last=Kurien |first=John |date=1995 |title=The Kerala Model: Its Central Tendency and the Outlier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3517892 |journal=Social Scientist |volume=23 |issue=1/3 |pages=70–90 |doi=10.2307/3517892 |jstor=3517892 |issn=0970-0293|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, a major deceleration in the rate of increase of value of output is observed from 1975 to 1985 where the level grew from Rs 741.4 million to just Rs 906.4 million as a result of declining fish harvests and prices. While the net state domestic product has increased by about 18% in the same decade, the fishery sector product has decreased by 20% in comparison. This can be seen in the 29% increase in the gap between per capita state domestic product and product per fisherperson between 1975–76 and 1984–85.<ref name=":17" /> [[Poverty]] is also prevalent in marine fishing communities that are often located on the geographical margins of the land who depend exclusive on the sea for their livelihood. These and other communities on the fringe of state borders have been left behind in the economic and socio-cultural progress that has been widely witnessed by the rest of the state. Poor [[quality of life]] and substandard conditions in marine fishing communities can be attributed specifically to the crowding of entire groups of people on the narrow strip of line along the length of Kerala's coastline: a total of 222 fishing villages along the state's 590&nbsp;km coastline—none more than a half kilometer wide.<ref name=":16" /> [[Population density]] in marine fishing villages was measured to be around 2113 persons per square kilometer in 1981, compared to a state figure of 655 per square kilometer. Basic amenities such as electric lighting, access to running water, toilet facilities, etc. are also at far lower standards in these fishing villages when compared to the state as a whole. The lack of basic facilities and [[hygiene]] has led to rapid spread of [[contagious diseases]] in these areas which express high levels of respiratory and skin infections, diarrheal disorders and hook worm infections to state a few. Though the all-Kerala [[Infant Mortality Rate|infant mortality rate]] was 17 per 1000 live births in 1991, the corresponding rate is 85 per 1000 births in marine fishing communities. There is also a clear gender bias evidenced by the sex ratio of 972 females to 1000 males in these communities, compared to the all-Kerala 1084:1000 ratio of females to males. Thus, marine fishing communities clearly represent an outlier community that has faced restricted levels of capabilities while the state of Kerala has seen progress overall.<ref name=":17" />