Editing Massachusett language (section)

==Geographic distribution==
Until the end of the 17th century, Massachusett was a locally important language. In its simplified pidgin form, it was adopted as a regional [[lingua franca]] of New England and Long Island. As a native language, its dialects were spoken by several peoples inhabiting the coastal and insular regions of Massachusetts, adjacent portions of northern and southeastern Rhode Island, and portions of southeastern and coastal New Hampshire, with transitional dialects historically extending as far north as the southernmost tip of Maine.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} Due to the waves of epidemics that killed off most of the Native peoples, competition with the large influx of English colonists for land and resources, and the great upheaval in the wake of [[King Philip's War]], by the beginning of the 18th century, the language and its speakers had contracted into a shrinking land base and population, concentrated in the former praying towns of Natick and Ponkapoag and the larger Wampanoag, isolated Wampanoag settlements on the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket and Mashpee on the mainland. After another century of extreme assimilation pressure, intermarriage, and the necessity of learning and using English in daily life, the language disappeared from Massachusett-speaking communities by the 19th century, with the very last speakers dying off at the century's end on Martha's Vineyard.<ref>Speck, F. W. (1928). pp. 46.</ref>

Contemporary speakers are restricted to the area surrounding four communities on Cape Cod and the Islands and nearby regions just a little "off Cape" including [[Mashpee, Massachusetts|Mashpee]], [[Aquinnah, Massachusetts|Aquinnah]], [[Freetown, Massachusetts|Freetown]], and [[Cedarville, Massachusetts|Cedarville, Plymouth]] which are the home of the [[federally recognized]] Mashpee and Aquinnah tribes and Assonet and Herring Pond communities that participate in the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project.<ref name="Project History"/>

Other groups with some ancestry from Massachusett-speaking peoples include the tribes that absorbed the refugees of King Philip's War such as the [[Abenaki]] ({{lang|abe|Alnôbak}}) of northern New Hampshire, [[Vermont]] and [[Québec]]; the [[Schaghticoke people|Schaghticoke]] ({{lang|alg|Pishgachtigok}}) of western Connecticut along the border with New York and the [[Brothertown Indians|Brothertown]] or Brotherton ({{lang|xpq|Eeyawquittoowauconnuck}}) and [[Stockbridge-Munsee Community|Stockbridge-Munsee]] ({{lang|mjy|[[Mahican|Mahiikaniiw]]}}-{{lang|umu|[[Munsee|Munsíiw]]}}){{citation needed|date=November 2023}}, both amalgamations of peoples of southern New England and elsewhere that relocated to Wisconsin.<ref>Calloway, C. G. C. (1997). [https://books.google.com/books?id=lbd8VHi8HjgC ''After King Philip's War, Presence and Persistence in Indian New England'']. (pp. 2–34). Dartmouth, NH: Dartmouth College.</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2023}}

===Dialects=== 
{{Further|Massachusett dialects}}
The Southern New England Algonquian languages existed in a [[dialect continuum]], with boundaries between languages and dialects softened by transitional speech varieties. Small differences existed between neighboring communities, but these increased with distance and isolation, and speakers from opposite ends of the continuum would have slightly more difficulties with inter-comprehension, but all the SNEA languages and dialects were mutually intelligible to some extent.<ref name="Costa, D. J. 2007. pp. 96-99"/>

Numerous dialects were lost during the depopulation of the Native peoples due to outbreaks of disease and the chaos of King Philip's War. Although afflicted by several epidemics caused by exposure to pathogens to which they had no previous exposure, the outbreak of [[leptospirosis]] in 1616–19 and a virulent [[smallpox]] epidemic in 1633 nearly cleared the land of Native Americans. The first outbreak hit the densely populated coastal areas with mortality rates as high as 90 percent, but the latter epidemic had a broader impact.<ref name="disease"/> The epidemics opened the Massachusett-speaking peoples to attacks from regional rivals, such as the Narragansett and Pennacook and historic enemies such as the Tarratine (Abenaki) and Mohawk, as well as removed any resistance to colonial expansion. The war caused many Native peoples to flee the area, and remnant populations regrouped, merging dialect communities and disparate peoples.<ref name="Mandell, D. 2011 pp. 136-138"/>

Knowledge of the spoken language and its diversity ceased with the death of the last speakers of SNEA languages. Most had ceased to be functional, everyday languages of the Native American communities by the end of the eighteenth century, if not sooner, and all were extinct by the dawning of the twentieth century. Most linguistic knowledge relies on word lists and passing mention in colonial sources, which can only provide very limited understanding.<ref>Costa, D. J. (2007). pp. 82–85.</ref> Written records do show some variation, but [[dialect levelling|dialect leveling]] was brought about with the introduction of a ''de facto'' standard [[written language]] as used in Eliot's translation of the Bible and several primers and catechisms used to teach literacy, were produced with the aid of Native American translators, editors and interpreters from Natick, and was based on its speech.<ref>Connole, D. A. (2007). pp. 101–104.</ref>

The employment of numerous literate Native Americans across Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies' Praying towns, many from Natick or had studied there for some time, helped elevate the spoken language as well, as it was recited when Bible passages were read aloud during sermons or any written document. [[Experience Mayhew]], himself bilingual in the language and from a direct line of missionaries to the Native Americans of Martha's Vineyard, where the speech was said to be completely unintelligible to neighboring Wampanoag from the mainland noted that '... most of the little differences betwixt them have been happily Lost, and our Indians Speak, but especially write much as the Natick do.'<ref>Cotton, J. (1830). ''Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society''. John Davis (ed.) Vol II(3). pp. 242–243. Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf Company.</ref><ref name="Wamp">Mandell, D. R. (1996). ''Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts''. (p. 59). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.</ref>

Small differences can be ascertained from the written sources, but most records indicate that the Massachusett-speaking people spoke very similarly to each other. Daniel Gookin, who had accompanied Eliot on his tours of the Praying towns, noted that the Pawtucket, Pokanoket (Mashpee Wampanoag), and Massachusett all spoke essentially the same language. Ives Goddard, in quoting the ethnopolitical boundaries as listed by [[John R. Swanton]] or [[Frederick Webb Hodge]] lists five dialects, Natick, North Shore, Wampanoag, Nauset and Coweset which correspond to the Massachusett, Pawtucket, Wampanoag, Nauset, and Coweset peoples, although the Nauset may have just been an isolated sub-tribe of the Wampanoag.<ref name="Goddard, Ives 1996. pp. 1"/>

===Derived languages===

====Massachusett Pidgin====
{{Further|Massachusett Pidgin}}
Several regional pidgin varieties of major Eastern Algonquian languages are attested in colonial records, including those based on Mahican, Munsee, Powhatan, and in New England, Massachusett. These pidgin varieties all featured reduced vocabulary and grammar simplifications. These pidgin varieties were used as the medium of communication between speakers of dialects or languages with limited mutual intelligibility.<ref>Campbell, L. (1997) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=h36tPYqAZPwC American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America].'' (pp. 20–25). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.</ref>

Massachusett Pidgin was used as a common language over New England and Long Island and was likely used with the foreign English settlers. For instance, Edward Winslow describes a situation in his 1624 ''Good News from New England'' where he and a few other Pilgrims were able to converse and understand the Native Americans well, but the Native Americans would speak to each other at times in a similar but baffling tongue, either as their natural language but also probably to restrict information exchange with the foreign English settlers. The pidgin variety varied from Massachusett in the following ways:<ref name="Goddard Pidgin">Goddard, I. (2000). 'The Use of Pidgins and Jargons on the East Coast of North America' in Gray, E. G. and Fiering, N. (eds.) ''The Language Encounter in the Americas, 1492–1800: A Collection of Essays.'' (pp. 61–80).</ref>

'''Simplification of vocabulary'''
* {{Lang|mis|squaw-sachem}} ({{Lang|mis|*sqâsôtyum}}) {{IPA|/skʷa sãtʲəm/}}<ref>From Proto-Algonquian *{{lang|alg-x-proto|eθkwe·wa}} by regular sound changes to {{IPA|/skʷaː/}} ('young girl') and {{lang|mis|sôntyum}} ('chief') Note that {{lang|mis|squaw}}, as a local word, is not hurtful, unless used in that way, but its usage history as a pejorative against Native women elsewhere, mostly in reference to married or older women, is well-documented.</ref> instead of Massachusett {{Lang|wam|sonkisquaw}} or syncopated {{Lang|wam|sunksquaw}} and {{Lang|wam|sonkisq}} ({{Lang|wam|*sôkusqâ}}) {{IPA|/sãkəskʷaː/|lang=wam}}<ref>From Proto-Algonquian *{{lang|alg-x-proto|sa·ki[ma·wa]}} by regular sound changes, but not triggering palatization of {{IPA|/k/}} to {{IPA|/tʲ/}} and {{lang|mis|sqâ}} ('young girl').</ref>

'''Use of non-Massachusett vocabulary'''
* Abenakian {{lang|und|sagamore}} (*{{lang|alg-x-proto|sôkumô}}) {{IPA|/sãkəmã/}}<ref>Abenakian pronunciation.</ref> instead of Massachusett {{Lang|wam|sachem}} ({{Lang|wam|sôtyum}}), although both forms are derived from Proto-Algonquian {{Lang|alg-x-proto|*sa·kima·wa}}.
* Abenakian or Unami {{lang|und|wigwam}} ({{Lang|unm|*weekuwôm}}) {{IPA|/wiːkəwãm/|lang=unm}} instead of Massachusett {{Lang|wam|wetu}} ({{Lang|wam|weetyuw}}) {{IPA|/wiːtʲəw/|lang=wam}},<ref>Hendricks, G. (2014). [http://www.mashpeewampanoagtribe-nsn.gov/content/pages/45/PtLckMusV826.pdf Pot luck at the Museum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202041236/http://www.mashpeewampanoagtribe-nsn.gov/content/pages/45/PtLckMusV826.pdf |date=2017-02-02 }}. Mashpee, MA: Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe.</ref> although both forms descend from Proto-Algoquian {{Lang|alg-x-proto|*wi·kiwa·ʔmi}}.

'''Reduction of verbs to the intransitive inanimate'''
* {{Lang|mis|namen}} ({{Lang|mis|nâmun}} literally 'to see it') instead of Massachusett {{Lang|wam|nunaw}} ({{Lang|wam|nunâw}}) {{IPA|/nə naːw/|lang=wam}},<ref>Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). p. 10.</ref> transitive animate 'I see (someone or something ''alive'')'. This can be seen in the example of {{Lang|mis|Matta neen wonckanet namen Winsnow}}, 'I shall never see Winslow again' but literally 'Never I again see it Winslow.' 
* 'I see (something or some object)' in Massachusett proper would be {{Lang|wam|nunaum}}<ref>Trumbull, J. H. (1903). p. 318.</ref> ({{Lang|wam|nunâm}}) {{IPA|/nə naːm/|lang=wam}}<ref>Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). p. 37.</ref>

Although the use of Massachusett Pidgin declined in favor of Massachusett Pidgin English, especially once the English settlers established their foothold and saw little use in the language of a people whose lands they were usurping and were dying off from disease. Interest in Massachusett Pidgin and other Algonquian pidgin languages comes from the fact that they were likely the main source of words from the Algonquian languages. For instance, the early Pilgrims and Puritans only make references to ''wigwams'' and never {{Lang|wam|wetu}}''s''. Similarly, ''sagamore'' was in common frequency as {{Lang|wam|sachem}} in the early English of New England.<ref name="Goddard Pidgin"/>

====Massachusett Pidgin English====
{{Further|Massachusett Pidgin English}}
A handful of Native Americans had rudimentary knowledge of English through occasional contacts with English seafarers, adventurers, fishermen and traders for a few decades before the first permanent English colonial settlement in New England at Plymouth. When the Pilgrims established their outpost, they were greeted in English by [[Samoset]], originally an Abenaki of coastal Maine, and [[Tisquantum]] ('Squanto'), a local Wôpanâak, but both of their home villages were also wiped out by an epidemic caused by infectious agents unknown in the New World. Tisquantum was abducted by the crew of English vessel, sold into [[slavery in Spain]], mysteriously found his way to London where gained employment on English explorations of the North American coast and later escaped and took up residence in a neighboring Wôpanâak village.<ref>Greene, Jes. (2015). [http://modernnotion.com/the-horrible-reason-squanto-already-knew-english-when-he-met-the-pilgrims/ The Horrible Reason Squanto Already Knew English When He Met the Pilgrims]. Modern Notion. Retrieved 15 April 2016.</ref>

As the Native Americans were already in a multi-dialectal, multilingual society, [[English language|English]] was adopted quite quickly albeit with strong influences of Massachusett lexicon, grammar and likely pronunciation. As the number of English settlers grew and quickly outnumbered the local peoples, Natives grew to use English more often, and the settlers also used it to communicate with the Native Americans. The resulting [[pidgin]] was probably the vector of transmission of many of the so-called 'wigwam words,' i.e., local Algonquian loan words, that were once prevalent in the English spoken in the Americas.

[[Massachusett Pidgin English]] was mostly English in vocabulary, but included numerous loan words, grammar features and [[calques]] of Massachusett Pidgin. Amongst the Native Americans, it co-existed with the use of the 'standard' Massachusett language, local speech and other dialects or languages, Massachusett Pidin and English. As the Native Americans began a quick process of [[language shift]] at the end of the eighteenth century, it is likely that Massachusett Pidgin English lost its native features and merged with the evolution of local speech, one of the varieties of [[Eastern New England English]] or even [[General American]] of the majority non-Native Americans of the region in a process similar to [[decreolization]]. Massachusett Pidgin English had the following characteristics:<ref name="Bailey">Bailey, R. W. (2012). ''Speaking American: A History of English in the United States''. (pp. 31–35). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.</ref>

'''Massachusett loan words (shared Massachusett Pidgin vocabulary)'''
* {{Lang|mis|meechin}} from Massachusett {{Lang|wam|metsuwonk}}<ref>Trumbull, J. H. (1903). p. 53.</ref>/({{Lang|wam|meech8ôk}})<ref>Fermino, J. l. d. (2000). p. 15.</ref> {{IPA|/miːˌtʃuːˈãk/|lang=wam}} ('food') via Massachusett Pidgin {{Lang|mis|meechum}} ('food').
* {{Lang|mis|sannap}} from Massachusett for 'young man.'
* {{Lang|mis|wunneekin}} ('good') from Massachusett {{Lang|wam|wunnegin}}<ref>Trumbull, J. H. (1903). p. 202.</ref>/({{Lang|wam|wuneekun}})<ref>Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). p. 36.</ref> ('it is good').
'''Generalized pronouns'''
* Use of 'me' for both 'I' and 'me.'
'''SNEA N-dialect interference'''
* English ''lobster'' and English surname ''Winslow'' with Massachusett Pidgin English {{Lang|mis|nobstah}} and {{Lang|mis|Winsnow}}, respectively, substitution of {{IPA|/n/}} for {{IPA|/l/}} of English.
* English ''Frenchmen'' adopted as {{Lang|mis|panachmonog}}, substitution of {{IPA|/n/}} for {{IPA|/r/}} of English.
'''Calques'''
* ''all one this'', calque of Massachusett Pidgin {{Lang|mis|tatapa you}} ('like this').
* ''big'', calque of {{Lang|mis|muhsuh-/*muhsh}}
* '''Reduplication'''<br/>E.g. ''by and by'' ('soon')
'''Use of Massachusett animate plural suffix for domesticated animals introduced by the English'''
* {{Lang|mis|cowsack}}''/''({{Lang|mis|*cowsak}}), ('cows').
* {{Lang|mis|horseog}}''/''({{Lang|mis|*horseak}}), ('horses').
* {{Lang|mis|pigsack}}''/''({{Lang|mis|*pigsak}}), ('pigs').

'''Examples of Massachusett Pidgin English'''<ref>Bailey, R. W. (2012) (pp. 34–35).</ref><ref>Goddard, I. (2000). (pp. 73–74).</ref>
* {{Lang|mis|English man all one speake, all one heart.}} ('What an Englishman says is what he thinks').
* {{Lang|mis|Weaybee gon coates?}} (Away be gone coats?) ('Do you have any coats?').
* {{Lang|mis|What cheer, netop.}} ('Greetings, friend') {{Lang|mis|Netop}}, 'friend,' from Massachusett {{Lang|wam|netomp}}''/''({{Lang|wam|neetôp}}).
* {{Lang|mis|Little way, fetch pigsack.}} ('[He went] not too far [to] fetch the pigs').