Editing Muhammad ibn al-Qasim (section)

==Administration of Sindh==
{{main|Caliphal province of Sind}}

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{{Annotation|115|215|[[Pandyan dynasty|PANDYAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|185|[[Chola dynasty|CHOLAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|70|34|[[Turk Shahis|TURK<br>SHAHIS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|75|130|[[Maitrakas]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|90|[[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|GURJARA<br>PRATIHARAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|185|110|[[Pala Empire|PALA<br>EMPIRE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|35|47|[[Zunbils|ZUNBILS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|95|160|[[Chalukya dynasty|CHALUKYAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|5|63|[[Abbasid Caliphate|ABBASID<br>CALIPHATE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|140|5|[[Tang dynasty|TANG DYNASTY]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
|caption={{center|Map of the Caliphal province of Sindh, a province of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], circa 750 CE.<ref name="JES">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (e)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182}}</ref>}}
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After the conquest, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's task was to set up an administrative structure for a stable Muslim state that incorporated a newly conquered alien land, inhabited by non-Muslims.<ref name="Appleby292">Appleby. pg. 291-292</ref> He adopted a conciliatory policy, asking for acceptance of Muslim rule by the natives in return for non-interference in their religious practice,<ref name="Appleby292"/> so long as the natives paid their taxes and tribute.<ref name="Gier"/> In return, the state provided protection to non-Muslim from any foreign attacks and enemies. He established Islamic [[Sharia]] law over the people of the region; however, Hindus were allowed to rule their villages and settle their disputes according to their own laws,<ref name="Gier"/> and traditional hierarchical institutions, including the village headmen ({{Transliteration|ar|rais}}) and chieftains ({{Transliteration|ar|[[dihqan]]s}}) were maintained.<ref name="Appleby292"/> A Muslim officer called an ''amil'' was stationed with a troop of cavalry to manage each town on a hereditary basis<ref name="Appleby292"/>

Everywhere taxes (''mal'') and tribute (''[[kharaj]]'') were settled and hostages taken&nbsp;— occasionally this also meant the custodians of temples.<ref name="Wink" /> Non-Muslim natives were excused from military service and from payment of the religiously mandated tax system levied upon Muslims called [[Zakat]],<ref name="Appleby292"/> the tax system levied upon them instead was the [[jizya]] - a [[progressive tax]], being heavier on the upper classes and light for the poor.<ref name="Appleby292"/> In addition, three percent of government revenue was allocated to the [[Brahmins]].<ref name="Gier"/>

===Incorporation of ruling elite into administration===
During his administration, Hindus and Buddhists were inducted into the administration as trusted advisors and governors.<ref name="Gier"/> A Hindu, Kaksa, was at one point the second most important member of his administration.<ref>H. M. Elliot and John Dowson, ''[[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians]]'', (London, 1867-1877), [https://archive.org/details/cu31924024066593/page/203 vol. 1, p. 203]. "Kaksa took precedence in the army before all the nobles and commanders. He collected the revenue of the country and the treasury was placed under his seal. He assisted Muhammad Kásim in all of his undertakings..."</ref> Dahir's prime minister and various chieftains were also incorporated into the administration.<ref>''The Chach-Nama''. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979. [http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=12701030&ct=3 Online version]. Retrieved 3 October 2006</ref>

===Clashes with the Jats===
{{anchor | Jat | Jats }}

Significant medieval [[Muslim]] chronicles such as the ''Chach Nama'', ''Zainul-Akhbar'' and ''[[Tarikh-i Bayhaqi|Tarikh-I-Baihaqi]]'' have recorded battles of [[Jat]]s of Sindh and Balochistan against the invading forces of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim and other Muslims.<ref>Chapter by S Jabir Raza ''Passages in the Chachnama, Zainul-Akhbar And Tarikh-i-Baihaqi'', Text and Translation, from the book ''The Jats, Their Role and contribution to the socio-Economic Life and Polity of North and North-West India'', Volume 2, pp. 43–52</ref>

The legendary [[Kalat, Balochistan#Kinan|Six battles of Kinan]] parallel the [[battle of Thermopylae]], where a small contingent of pastoral Jat warriors defeated a massive Muslim army. Despite facing a vastly superior Muslim military in numbers, training, and weaponry, Jats inflicted a crushing defeat on Arabic invaders, a humiliation so profound it was taken personally by the Muslim Caliph. Chach Nama reports that the mountain-dwelling brave and agile Jats of Kikan or Kikanan or Kizkanan near [[Bolan Pass]] in [[Balochistan]],<ref name=invadersinfidel1/> [[Gandava#Kikan|likely same as]] present-day [[Kalat, Pakistan|Kalat]],<ref name="Baloch 1978">{{cite book |last1=Baloch |first1=N.A. |editor1-last=Van Donzel |editor1-first=E. |editor2-last=Lewis |editor2-first=B. |editor3-last=Pellat |editor3-first=Ch. |title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume IV (IRAN-KHA) |date=1978 |publisher=E.J. Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=90-04-05745-5 |pages=534–5 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/volume-5/Volume%204/page/533/mode/2up |access-date=8 April 2022 |chapter=ḲANDĀBĪL}}</ref><ref name="Le Strange 1905">{{cite book |last1=Le Strange |first1=Guy |title=The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate: Mesopotamia, Persia, and Central Asia, from the Moslem Conquest to the Time of Timur |date=1905 |publisher=Barnes & Noble, Inc. |location=New York |pages=331–2 |url=https://archive.org/details/landsoftheeaster028596mbp/page/330/mode/2up?q=kandabil}}</ref> summarily defeated invading Arabic Muslim forces of Haras and killed Haras in 662, only a small portion of Muslim forces returned to caliphate. The impact of Muslim defeat was so significant that for next 20 years each successive caliph made Kikan a special target for attack and sent 6 expeditions of which 5 "failed miserably" and "failed to make any permanent impression" in Sindh.<ref name=invadersinfidel1/>
 
{{Blockquote|text="The Bolan Pass was protected by the brave Jats of Kikan or Kikanan. The long-drawn struggle of the Arabs with these powers [Jats] ... marks their [Arab Muslims'] steady but fruitless endeavours to enter India ... The hardy mountaineers [Jats] of these regions, backed by the natural advantage of their hilly country, offered stubborn resistance to the conquerors of the world ... If there had been a history of India written without prejudices and predilections, the heroic deeds of these [Jat] people, who stemmed the tide of Islam for two centuries, would certainly have received the recognition they so richly deserve [emphasis added]".<ref name=invadersinfidel1>Sandeep Balakrishna, 2020, [https://www.google.com.sg/books/edition/Invaders_and_Infidels_Book_1/lzALEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=jat+of+kikan+or+kikanan&pg=PT26&printsec=frontcover Invaders and Infidels (Book 1): From Sindh to Delhi: The 500-year journey of Islamic invasion], [[Bloomsbury Publishing]].</ref>|sign=|source=}}

The eastern Hindu Jats supported the Sindhi king, Dahir, against the Arab Muslim invaders, whereas the western Jats aligned with Muhammad bin Qasim (708-711 CE) against Dahir.<ref name=Viajaya>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5CYxDwAAQBAJ&dq=jats+and+muhammad+bin+qasim&pg=PT127 |title=Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=9781351558242 |editor=Vijaya Ramaswamy |access-date=17 January 2022}}</ref> At battle of Aror (Rohri), the united forces of Dahir and the eastern Jats jointly fought against Muhammad ibn al-Qasim.<ref name="2004Wink1"/> Rani Bai, the queen of King Dahir, had Jat origins, her father was Jat. [[Al-Baladhuri]]'s historical accounts document that the Jat people displayed a strong sense of independence, following the Muslim incursions into Sindh, some Jats, along with their livestock (buffalo), were taken to Iraq where they engaged in disruptive and rebellious activities.<ref name=ranib1>[[Manan Ahmed Asif]], 2016, A Book of Conquest: The Chachnama and Muslim Origins in South Asia, [[Harvard University Press]], p.211.</ref>  After defeating Dahir, Muhammad bin al-Qasim turned against the Jats and Lohanas, the ''Chach Nama'', ''Zainul-Akhbar'' and ''Tarikh-i Bayhaqi'' have recorded battles between Hindu Jats and forces of Muhammad ibn Qasim.<ref name=Viajaya />

After the death of Hajjaj in 714 CE, the son of Dahir, Jaisimba (Jaisiah) reconquered the Brahmanabad during the time of [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] caliph [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik]] (r. 715-717). Jaisimba was later killed in a battle with Umayyad governor of Sindh, [[Junayd ibn Abd ar-Rahman al-Murri]] (r. 723 to 726 CE). However, the Jats and Meds continue to mount a formidable resistance against the Muslim forces around the ancient Sindhi capital of Alor (near [[Sukkur]]) during the time of caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] (r. 786-809), in which Muslims did not fare well.<ref name=jatmed1>Sailendra Nath Sen, 1999, Ancient Indian History and Civilization, New Age International Publishers, pp-347-348.</ref> [[David Nicolle]] writes that "The resident Buddhist Jats [of Sindh] remained formidable warriors until they dropped out of historical records from the 11th to 17th century."<ref name=drop1>[[David Nicolle]], 2023, Medieval Indian Armies (2): Indo-Islamic Forces, 7th–Early 16th century, [[Osprey Publishing]], United Kingdom of Britain, p 14.</ref>

===Religion===
Lane-Poole writes that, "as a rule Muslim government was at once tolerant and economic".<ref>''Medieval India'' by Stanly Lane-Poole, Pub 1970, Page 10.</ref> The preference of collection of jizya over the conversion to Islam is a major economic motivator.<ref name=Extortion1>Habib Tiliouine, Richard J. Estes, 2016, "The State of Social Progress of Islamic Societies", Springer, page 338.</ref><ref name="Extortion2">John Powell, 2010, "Weapons & Warfare: Warfare : culture and concepts", Salem Press, page 884.</ref> Hindus and Buddhists who were classified as [[Dhimmi]]s had to pay mandatory [[Jizya]] instead of [[Zakat]] paid by Muslims.<ref>(Quran 9:29) “Fight those who do not believe in Allah or in the Last Day and who do not consider unlawful what Allah and His Messenger have made unlawful and who do not adopt the religion of truth from those who were given the Scripture - [fight] until they give the jizyah willingly while they are humbled.”</ref><ref>
(Sahih Bukhari Volume 4 Chapter 88) Narrated Ibn Umar that the Prophet said, "My livelihood is under the shade of my spear, and he who disobeys my orders will be humiliated by paying Jizya."</ref> Contrastingly preferential treatment was given to a small number of people who were converted to Islam by "exempting them from Jizya in lieu of paying the [[Zakat]]".<ref name="Appleby292"/> Muhammad ibn al-Qasim fixed the Zakat at 10% of the agricultural produce.<ref name=sid1/> Others had to pay the mandatory jizya.<ref>{{cite book |last=Glenn |first= H. Patrick |author-link=H. Patrick Glenn |year=2007 |title=Legal Traditions of the World |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=218–219}}</ref><ref>H. Patrick Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World''. [[Oxford University Press]], 2007, p. 219.</ref><ref name=Bennett>{{Cite book|title=Muslims and Modernity: An Introduction to the Issues and Debates|first=Clinton|last=Bennett|publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]]|year=2005|isbn=082645481X|page=163|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D0vYYovH7OQC|access-date=7 July 2012|author-link=Clinton Bennett}}</ref> "In Al-Biruni's narrative", according to [[Manan Ahmed Asif]] – a historian of Islam in South and South East Asia, "Muhammad bin Qasim first asserts the superiority of Islam over the polytheists by committing a taboo (killing a cow) and publicly soiling the idol (giving the cow meat as an offering)" before allowing the temple to continue as a place of worship.<ref name="Asif2016p112">{{cite book|author= Manan Ahmed Asif|title= A Book of Conquest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3QD6DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA112|year= 2016|publisher= Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-97243-8|pages=111–112}}</ref>

A religious Islamic office, "''sadru-I-Islam al affal"'', was created to oversee the secular governors.<ref name="Appleby292"/> The native hereditary elites were reappointed with the title of [[Rana (title)|Rana]]. According to [[Yohanan Friedmann]], Muhammad ibn al-Qasim declared that the Brahmins of [[Mansura, Sindh|Brahmanabad]] were good people.<ref name=sid1>Iqtidar Hisain Siddiqui, 2010, [https://books.google.com/books?id=DJbmTL8svpwC&dq=treatment+of+jats+by+muhammad+bin+qasim&pg=PA35 Indo-Persian historiography up to thirteenth century], Primum Books, Delhi.</ref>

While [[proselytization]] occurred, given the social dynamics of areas of Sindh conquered by Muslim, the spread of Islam was slow and took centuries.<ref name="Appleby292"/> No mass conversions to Islam took place and some temples escaped destruction such as the [[Sun Temple of Multan]]  on payment of jizya.<ref>Schimmel pg.4</ref> In the Arab settlers controlled areas of Sindh and Multan, conversion to Islam occurred only slowly, not on a massive scale.<ref name="StillHindu1"/> Majority of the population continued to remain Hindu who had to pay the jizya imposed by the Muslim state.<ref name="StillHindu1">Mohammad Yunus, Aradhana Parmar, 2003, "South Asia: A Historical Narrative", Oxford University Press, page 123.</ref>

It has been reported that Muhammad ibn al-Qasim met with [[Ruqayya bint Ali|Sayyida Ruqayya bint Ali]] ([[Bibi Pak Daman]]) in India, a daughter of [[Ali|Ali ibn Abi Talib]] the son-in-law of the Islamic [[prophet Muhammad]] and the fourth [[Rashidun caliph]] (r. 656-661). The events of the [[Battle of Karbala|massacre of Muhammad's family at Karbala]] (680 CE) caused many relatives of Muhammad including Ruqayyah to migrate to [[Makran]]. Among her potential assassins had been Muhammad Bin Qasim who later switched allegiances and became a supporter of Ruqayyah after learning of the sufferings experienced by the family of Muhammad.<ref name="Shoeb2016">{{cite journal|last1=Shoeb|first1=Robina|year=2016|title=Female Sufism in Pakistan: A Case Study of Bibi Pak Daman|journal=Pakistan Vision|volume=17|issue=1|pages=225–229}}</ref>