Editing Nuxalk language (section)

== Grammar ==

=== Events ===

The first element in a sentence expresses the event of the proposition. It inflects for the person and number of one (in the intransitive paradigm) or two (in the transitive paradigm) participants.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Single-participant event inflections{{sfn|Davis|Saunders|1997|p=24}}
|-
!Intr. inflection
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1st Person
| {{lang|blc|-c|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-(i)ł|italic=no}}
|-
! 2nd Person
| {{lang|blc|-nu|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-(n)ap|italic=no}}
|-
! 3rd Person
| -Ø or {{lang|blc|-s|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-(n)aw|italic=no}}
|}

E.g. {{lang|blc|ƛ̓ikm-Ø}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|wac̓-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} 'the dog is running'.

Whether the parenthesized segments are included in the suffix depends on whether the stem ends in an underlying resonant (vowel, liquid, nasal) and whether it is non-syllabic. So {{lang|blc|qāχla}} 'drink' becomes {{lang|blc|qāχla-}}{{lang|blc|ł}} 'we drink', {{lang|blc|qāχla-}}{{lang|blc|nap}} 'you (pl.) drink', {{lang|blc|qāχla-}}{{lang|blc|naw}} 'they drink', but {{lang|blc|nuyamł}} 'sing' becomes {{lang|blc|nuyamł-}}{{lang|blc|ił}} 'we're singing', {{lang|blc|nuyamł-}}{{lang|blc|ap}} 'you (pl.) are singing', {{lang|blc|nuyamł-}}{{lang|blc|aw}} 'they're singing'.

However, the choice of the 3ps marker -Ø or -{{lang|blc|s}} is conditioned by semantics rather than phonetics. For example, the sentences {{lang|blc|tix-}}{{lang|blc|s}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|ʔimlk-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} and {{lang|blc|tix-Ø}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|ʔimlk-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} could both be glossed 'it's the man', but the first is appropriate if the man is the one who is normally chosen, while the second is making an assertion that it is the ''man'' (as opposed to someone else, as might otherwise be thought) who is chosen.{{elucidate|date=August 2012}}

The following are the possible person markers for transitive verbs, with empty cells indications non-occurring combinations and '--' identifying semantic combinations which require the reflexive suffix {{lang|blc|-cut-}} followed by the appropriate intransitive suffix:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Two-participant event inflections{{sfn|Davis|Saunders|1997|p=26}}
|-
! rowspan="3" colspan="3" | Transitive <br /> inflection
! colspan="7" align="center" | Experiencer:
|-
! colspan="3" align="center" | singular
! colspan="3" align="center" | plural
|-
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 1
! 2
! 3
|-
! rowspan="6" {{vert header|va=middle|Executor:}}
! rowspan="3" {{vert header|va=middle|singular}}
! 1
| –
| {{lang|blc|-cinu|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-ic|italic=no}}
|
| {{lang|blc|-tułap|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tic|italic=no}}
|-
! 2
| {{lang|blc|-cxʷ|italic=no}}
| –
| {{lang|blc|-ixʷ|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tułnu|italic=no}}
|
| {{lang|blc|-tixʷ|italic=no}}
|-
! 3
| {{lang|blc|-cs|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-ct|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-is|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tułs|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tap|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tis|italic=no}}
|-
! rowspan="3" {{vert header|va=middle|plural}}
! 1
|
| {{lang|blc|-tułnu|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-ił|italic=no}}
| –
| {{lang|blc|-tułap|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tił|italic=no}}
|-
! 2
| {{lang|blc|-cap|italic=no}}
|
| {{lang|blc|-ip|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tułp|italic=no}}
| –
| {{lang|blc|-tip|italic=no}}
|-
! 3
| {{lang|blc|-cant|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-ct|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-it|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tułt|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tap|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tit|italic=no}}
|-
|}

E.g. {{lang|blc|sp̓-}}{{lang|blc|is}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|ʔimlk-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|stn-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} 'the man struck the tree'.

Whether a word can serve as an event is not determined lexically, e.g. {{lang|blc|ʔimmllkī-Ø}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|nusʔūlχ-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} 'the thief is a boy', {{lang|blc|nusʔūlχ-Ø}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|q̓s-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} 'the one who is ill is a thief'.

There is a further causative paradigm whose suffixes may be used instead:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Causative paradigm{{sfn|Davis|Saunders|1997|p=29}}
|-
! rowspan="3" colspan="3" | Transitive <br /> inflection
! colspan="7" align="center" | Experiencer:
|-
! colspan="3" align="center" | singular
! colspan="3" align="center" | plural
|-
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 1
! 2
! 3
|-
! rowspan="6" {{vert header|va=middle|Executor}}
! rowspan="3" {{vert header|va=middle|singular}}
! 1
| –
| {{lang|blc|-tuminu|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tuc|italic=no}}
|
| {{lang|blc|-tumułap|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tutic|italic=no}}
|-
! 2
| {{lang|blc|-tumxʷ|italic=no}}
| –
| {{lang|blc|-tuxʷ|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tumułxʷ|italic=no}}
|
| {{lang|blc|-tutixʷ|italic=no}}
|-
! 3
| {{lang|blc|-tum|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tumt|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tus|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tumułs|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tutap|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tutis|italic=no}}
|-
! rowspan="3" {{vert header|va=middle|plural}}
! 1
|
| {{lang|blc|-tumułnu|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tuł|italic=no}}
| –
| {{lang|blc|-tumułap|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tutił|italic=no}}
|-
! 2
| {{lang|blc|-tumanp|italic=no}}
|
| {{lang|blc|-tup|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tumułp|italic=no}}
| –
| {{lang|blc|-tutip|italic=no}}
|-
! 3
| {{lang|blc|-tumant|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tumt|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tut|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tumułt|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tutap|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tutit|italic=no}}
|-
|}

This has a passive counterpart:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Passive Causative paradigm{{sfn|Davis|Saunders|1997|p=43}}
! Passive Causative
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1st Person
| {{lang|blc|-tuminic|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tuminił|italic=no}}
|-
! 2nd Person
| {{lang|blc|-tumt|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tutap|italic=no}}
|-
! 3rd Person
| {{lang|blc|-tum|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|-tutim|italic=no}}
|-
|}

This may also have a benefactive gloss when used with events involving less activity of their participant (e.g. {{lang|blc|nuyamł-}}{{lang|blc|tus}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|ʔimlk-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|ʔimmllkī-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} 'the man made/let the boy sing'/'the man sang for the boy'), while in events with more active participants only the causative gloss is possible. In the later group even more active verbs have a preference for the affix {{lang|blc|-lx-}} (implying passive experience) before the causative suffix.

The executor in a transitive sentence always precedes the experiencer. However, when an event is proceeded by a lone participant, the semantic content of the event determines whether the participant is an executor or an experiencer. This can only be determined syntactically if the participant is marked by the preposition {{lang|blc|ʔuł-}}, which marks the experience.

Some events are inherently transitive or intransitive, but some may accept multiple valencies (e.g. {{lang|blc|ʔanayk}} 'to be needy'/'to want [something]').

Prepositions may mark experiencers, and must mark implements. Any participants which are not marked by prepositions are [[Focus (linguistics)|focussed]]. There are three voices, which allow either the executor, the experiencer, or both to have focus:

* [[Active voice]] – neither is marked with prepositions.
* [[grammatical voice|Passive voice]] – the event may have different suffixes, and the executor may be omitted or marked with a preposition
* [[Antipassive voice]] – the event is marked with the affix {{lang|blc|-a-}} before personal markers, and the experiencer is marked with a preposition

The affix {{lang|blc|-amk-}} ({{lang|blc|-yamk-}} after the antipassive marker {{lang|blc|-a-}}) allows an implement to have its preposition removed and to be focused. For example:
* {{lang|blc|nuyamł-Ø}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|man-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} {{lang|blc|ʔuł-}}{{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|mna-}}{{lang|blc|s-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} {{lang|blc|x-}}{{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|syut-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} 'the father sang the song to his son'
* {{lang|blc|nuyamł-}}{{lang|blc|amk-}}{{lang|blc|is}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|man-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|syut-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} {{lang|blc|ʔuł-}}{{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|mna-}}{{lang|blc|s-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} 'the father sang the song to his son'

=== Prepositions ===

There are four prepositions which have broad usage in Nuxalk:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Prepositions{{sfn|Davis|Saunders|1997|p=36}}
! Prepositions
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
! Stative
| {{lang|blc|x-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|ʔał-|italic=no}}
|-
! Active
| {{lang|blc|ʔuł-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|wixłł-|italic=no}}
|-
|}

=== Deixis ===

Nuxalk has a set of [[Deixis|deictic]] prefixes and suffixes which serve to identify items as instantiations of domains rather than domains themselves and to locate them in deictic space. Thus the sentences {{lang|blc|wac̓-Ø}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|ƛ̓ikm-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} and {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|wac̓-Ø}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|ƛ̓ikm-}}{{lang|blc|tx}}, both 'the one that's running is a dog', are slightly different – similar to the difference between the English sentences 'the visitor is Canadian' and 'the visitor is a Canadian' respectively.{{sfn|Davis|Saunders|1997|pp=83–84}}

The deixis system has a proximal/medial/distal and a non-demonstrative/demonstrative distinction. Demonstratives may be used when finger pointing would be appropriate (or in distal space when something previously mentioned is being referred to).

Proximal demonstrative space roughly corresponds to the area of conversation, and proximal non-demonstrative may be viewed as the area in which one could attract another's attention without raising one's voice. Visible space beyond this is middle demonstrative, space outside of this but within the invisible neighborhood is medial non-demonstrative. Everything else is distal, and non-demonstrative if not mentioned earlier.

The deictic prefixes and suffixes are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Deictic suffixes{{sfn|Davis|Saunders|1997|p=86}}
! rowspan="2" align="center" | Deictic <br /> Suffixes
! colspan="2" align="center" | Proximal
! colspan="2" align="center" | Medial
! colspan="2" align="center" | Distal
|-
! Non-Demon-<br />strative
! Demon-<br />strative
! Non-Demon-<br />strative
! Demon-<br />strative
! Non-Demon-<br />strative
! Demon-<br />strative
|-
! Masculine
| {{lang|blc|tx-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|t̓ayx-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|ł-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|t̓aχ-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|tχ-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|taχ-|italic=no}}
|-
! Feminine
| {{lang|blc|cx-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|c̓ayx-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|ł-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|ʔiłʔaył-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|ʔił-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|ʔił-|italic=no}}
|-
! Plural
| {{lang|blc|c-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|ʔac-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|ł-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|t̓aχʷ-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|tχʷ-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|tuχ-|italic=no}}
|-
|}

Female affixes are used only when the particular is singular and identified as female; if not, even if the particular is inanimate, masculine or plural is used.

The deictic prefixes only have a proximal vs. non-proximal distinction, and no demonstrative distinction:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Deictic prefixes{{sfn|Davis|Saunders|1997|p=89}}
! Deictic <br /> Prefixes
! Proximal
! Medial and Distal
|-
! Masculine
| {{lang|blc|ti-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|ta-|italic=no}}
|-
! Feminine
| {{lang|blc|ci-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|ła-|italic=no}} ({{lang|blc|ʔił-|italic=no}})
|-
! Plural
| {{lang|blc|wa-|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|ta-|italic=no}} ({{lang|blc|tu-|italic=no}})
|-
|}

{{lang|blc|tu-}} is used in earlier varieties and some types of narratives, except for middle non-demonstrative, and the variant {{lang|blc|ʔił-}} may be used "in the same collection of deictic space".

While events are not explicitly marked for tense per se, deixis plays a strong role in determining when the proposition is being asserted to occur. So in a sentence like {{lang|blc|mus-}}{{lang|blc|is}} {{lang|blc|ti-}}{{lang|blc|ʔimmllkī-}}{{lang|blc|tx}} {{lang|blc|ta-}}{{lang|blc|q̓lsxʷ-}}{{lang|blc|t̓aχ}} 'the boy felt that rope', the sentence is perceived as having a near-past (same day) interpretation, as the boy cannot be touching the rope in middle space from proximal space. However this does not hold for some events, like {{lang|blc|k̓x}} 'to see'.{{sfn|Davis|Saunders|1997|pp=89–90}}

A distal suffix on any participant lends the event a distant past interpretation (before the past day), a medial suffix and no distal suffix lends a near past time, and if the participants are marked as proximal the time is present.

Not every distal participant occurs in past-tense sentences, and vice versa—rather, the deictic suffixes must ''either'' represent positions in space, time, ''or'' both.

=== Pronouns ===
Personal pronouns are reportedly nonexistent but the idea is expressed via verbs that translate as "to be me", etc.<ref>{{harvtxt|Nater|1984}}, cited in {{harvtxt|Bhat|2004|p=26}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Pronouns{{sfn|Davis|Saunders|1997|p=114}}
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1st person
| {{lang|blc|ʔnc|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|łmił|italic=no}}
|-
! 2nd person
| {{lang|blc|ʔinu|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|łup|italic=no}}
|-
! 3rd person
| {{lang|blc|tix|italic=no}},{{lang|blc|cix|italic=no}}
| {{lang|blc|wix|italic=no}}
|-
|}

=== Particles ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Particles{{sfn|Davis|Saunders|1997|p=180}}
! Particle
! Label
! Gloss
|-
| {{lang|blc|kʷ|italic=no}}
| [[Quotative]]
| 'he said'
|-
| {{lang|blc|ma|italic=no}}
| [[Dubitative]]
| 'maybe'
|-
| {{lang|blc|ʔalu|italic=no}}
| Attemptive
| 'try'
|-
| {{lang|blc|ck|italic=no}}
| Inferential Dubitative
| 'I figure'
|-
| {{lang|blc|cakʷ|italic=no}}
| [[Optative]]
| 'I wish/hope'
|-
| {{lang|blc|su|italic=no}}
| Expectable
| 'again'
|-
| {{lang|blc|tu|italic=no}}
| Confirmative
| 'really'
|-
| {{lang|blc|ku|italic=no}}
| Surprisative
| 'so'
|-
| {{lang|blc|lu|italic=no}}
| Expective
| 'expected'
|-
| {{lang|blc|a|italic=no}}
| [[Interrogative]]
| [yes/no questions]
|-
| {{lang|blc|c̓|italic=no}}
| Perfective
| 'now'
|-
| {{lang|blc|c̓n|italic=no}}
| Imperfective
| 'now'
|-
| {{lang|blc|k̓ʷ|italic=no}}
| Usitative
| 'usually'
|-
| {{lang|blc|mas|italic=no}}
| Absolutive
| 'always'
|-
| {{lang|blc|ks|italic=no}}
| Individuative
| 'the one'
|-
| {{lang|blc|łū|italic=no}}
| Persistive
| 'still, yet'
|-
| {{lang|blc|tū|italic=no}}
| Non-contrastive<br />conjunction
| 'and'
|-
| {{lang|blc|ʔi...k|italic=no}}
| Contrastive<br />conjunction
| 'but'
|}