Editing Paul Robeson (section)

==World War II, the Broadway ''Othello'', political activism, and McCarthyism==

=== 1939–1945: World War II, and the Broadway ''Othello'' ===
[[File:"Paul Robeson, world famous Negro baritone, leading Moore Shipyard (Oakland, CA) workers in singing the Star Spangled Ba - NARA - 535874.tif|thumb|Robeson leading Moore Shipyard ([[Oakland, California]]) workers in singing the "[[Star Spangled Banner]]", September 1942]]
[[File:Robeson Hagen Othello.jpg|thumb|right|Robeson with [[Uta Hagen]] in the [[Theatre Guild]] production of ''[[Othello]]'' (1943–44)]]

Robeson's last British film was ''[[The Proud Valley]]'' (1940), set in a Welsh coal-mining town.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edinburghfilmguild.org.uk/programme_notes/the_proud_Valley.pdf|title=The Proud Valley|last=Bourne|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Bourne (writer)|author2=Dr. Hywel Francis|publisher=Edinburgh Film Guide|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203160114/http://edinburghfilmguild.org.uk/programme_notes/the_proud_Valley.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 3, 2012|access-date=November 29, 2011}}</ref> The film was still being shot when Hitler's invasion of Poland led to England's declaration of war at the beginning of September 1939; several weeks later, just after the completion of filming, Robeson and his family returned to the United States, arriving in New York in October 1939.<ref>{{harvnb|Swindall|2015|pp=89–90}}.</ref> They lived at first in the [[Sugar Hill, Manhattan|Sugar Hill]] neighborhood of Harlem, and in 1941 settled in [[Enfield, Connecticut]].<ref>{{harvnb|Swindall|2015|pp=90, 96}}.</ref>

After his well-received performance of ''[[Ballad for Americans]]'' on a live CBS radio broadcast on November 5, with a repeat performance on New Year's Day 1940, the song became a popular seller.{{sfn|Duberman|1989|pp=236–238}}<ref>{{harvnb|Swindall|2015|pp=91–92}}.</ref> In 1940, the magazine ''[[Collier's]]'' named Robeson America's "no. 1 entertainer".<ref>Furst, Randy (October 7, 2015). "Singer Paul Robeson was banned at the University of Minnesota during the Cold War." ''[[Star Tribune]]''. Retrieved April 14, 2024.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Price|2007|pages=8–9}}</ref> Nevertheless, during a tour in 1940, the Beverly Wilshire Hotel was the only major Los Angeles hotel willing to accommodate him due to his race, at an exorbitant rate and registered under an assumed name, and he therefore dedicated two hours every afternoon to sitting in the lobby, where he was widely recognised, "to ensure that the next time Black{{bracket|s}} come through, they'll have a place to stay." Los Angeles hotels lifted their restrictions on black guests soon afterwards.<ref>Earl Robinson with Eric A. Gordon, ''Ballad of an American: The Autobiography of Earl Robinson'' (Scarecrow Press: Lanham, Md., 1998), p. 99.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/long-overdue-paul-robeson-revival-talented-person-20th-century/ |title=We Are Long Overdue for a Paul Robeson Revival |website=Los Angeles Review of Books |date=May 8, 2014 |author=Peter Dreier |access-date=August 3, 2019 |archive-date=March 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302212135/https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/long-overdue-paul-robeson-revival-talented-person-20th-century/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Robeson narrated the 1942 documentary ''[[Native Land]]'' which was labeled by the FBI as communist propaganda.<ref>FBI record, "Paul Robeson". FBI 100-25857, New York, December 8, 1942.<!--cf.Nollen: 137?--></ref> After an appearance in ''[[Tales of Manhattan]]'' (1942), a production which he felt was "very offensive to my people" due to the [[Tales of Manhattan#Controversy surrounding fifth tale upon 1942 release|way the segment was handled in stereotypes]], he announced that he would no longer act in films because of the demeaning roles available to blacks.{{sfn|Duberman|1989|pp=259–261}}

According to [[Democratic socialism|democratic socialist]] writer Barry Finger's critical appraisal of Robeson, while the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|Hitler-Stalin pact]] was still in effect, Robeson counseled American blacks that they had no stake in the rivalry of [[Great power|European powers]]. Once Russia was attacked, he urged blacks to support the war effort, now warning that an Allied defeat would "make slaves of us all."<ref name="finger">Barry Finger, [http://nova.wpunj.edu/newpolitics/issue25/finger25.htm "Paul Robeson: A Flawed Martyr"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112204045/http://nova.wpunj.edu/newpolitics/issue25/finger25.htm |date=January 12, 2012}}, in: ''[[New Politics (magazine)|New Politics]]'', vol. 7, no. 1 (Summer 1998).</ref> Robeson participated in benefit concerts on behalf of the war effort and at a concert at the [[Polo Grounds]], he met two emissaries from the [[Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee]], [[Solomon Mikhoels]] and [[Itzik Feffer]].{{sfn|Lustiger|2003|pp=125–127}} Subsequently, Robeson reprised the role of Othello at the [[Shubert Theatre (Broadway)|Shubert Theatre]] in 1943,<ref>{{IBDB title|1345|Othello|description=(1943)}}</ref> and became the first African American to play the role with a white supporting cast on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]]. The production was a success, running for 296 performances on Broadway (a record for a Shakespeare production on Broadway that still stands),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/418759-longest-running-shakespeare-play-broadway|title=Longest-running Shakespeare play (Broadway)|publisher=[[Guinness World Records]]|access-date=October 21, 2023|archive-date=October 21, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021080028/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/418759-longest-running-shakespeare-play-broadway|url-status=live}}</ref> and winning for Robeson the first [[Donaldson Awards|Donaldson Award]] for Best Actor in a Play. During the same period, he addressed a meeting with [[Commissioner of Baseball|Commissioner]] [[Kenesaw Mountain Landis]] and team owners in a failed attempt to convince them to admit black players to [[Major League Baseball]].{{sfn|Dorinson|Pencak|2004|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=Otiz7Mi-iUYC|page=1}} 1]}} He toured North America with ''Othello'' until 1945,{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p=295}} and subsequently, his political efforts with the Council on African Affairs to get colonial powers to discontinue their exploitation of Africa were short-circuited by the United Nations.{{sfn|Duberman|1989|pp=296–97}}

During this period, Robeson also developed a sympathy for the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]]'s side in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]. In 1940, the Chinese progressive activist, [[Liu Liangmo]] taught Robeson the patriotic song "''Chee Lai!"'' ("Arise!"), known as the [[March of the Volunteers]].<ref name=llm>{{Cite book|chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=eMvaMuZkwvcC|page=207}}|title=Chinese American Voices: From the Gold Rush to the Present|editor-last=Yung|editor-first=Judy|editor-last2=Chang|editor-first2=Gordon H.|editor-last3=Lai|editor-first3=H. Mark|date=2006|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520243095|language=en|last=Liu |first=Liangmo Translated by Ellen Yeung. |chapter=Paul Robeson: The People's Singer (1950)}}</ref> Robeson premiered the song at a concert in New York City's [[Lewisohn Stadium]]<ref name=llm/> and recorded it in both English and Chinese for [[Keynote Records]] in early 1941.<ref name=chichi>{{Cite book|chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=-daxO76KmV8C|page=217}}|title=Re-envisioning the Chinese Revolution: The Politics and Poetics of Collective Memories in Reform China|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Ching Kwan|date=2007|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0804758536|language=en|last=Chi |first=Robert|chapter=The March of the Volunteers': From Movie Theme Song to National Anthem}}</ref><ref name=avant/> Robeson gave further performances at benefit concerts for the [[China Aid Council]] and [[United China Relief]] at Washington's [[Uline Arena]] on April 24, 1941.<ref name=blow>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=vYZPIE7UKggC|page=136}}|title=Death Blow to Jim Crow: The National Negro Congress and the Rise of Militant Civil Rights|last=Gellman|first=Erik S.|date=2012|publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press|isbn=978-0807869932|language=en}}</ref> The [[China Aid Council|Washington Committee for Aid to China]]'s booking of [[Constitution Hall]] had been blocked by the [[Daughters of the American Revolution]] owing to Robeson's race.<ref name=":Gao">{{Cite book |last=Gao |first=Yunxiang |title=Arise, Africa! Roar, China! Black and Chinese Citizens of the World in the Twentieth Century |date=2021 |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]] |isbn=9781469664606 |location=Chapel Hill}}</ref>{{Rp|page=71}} The indignation was so great that [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] and [[Hu Shih]], the Chinese ambassador, became sponsors. However, when the organizers offered tickets on generous terms to the [[National Negro Congress]] to help fill the larger venue, both sponsors withdrew, objecting to the NNC's Communist ties.<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=MzFhJ5v0TL0C|page=25}}|page=25|title=The Undiscovered Paul Robeson: Quest for Freedom, 1939–1976|last=Robeson|first=Paul Jr.|date= 2009|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0470569689|language=en}}</ref>

Robeson opposed the U.S. support for [[Chiang Kai-shek]] and the [[Kuomintang]] in China, and denounced U.S. support for Chiang at political events over the course of 1945–1946, including the World Peace Conference and the National Peace Commission.<ref name=":Gao" />{{Rp|pages=84–85}} In Robeson's view, the Kuomintang's [[Anti-communism in China|anti-communist]] focus and blockade of the [[Chinese Red Army|Communist guerrilla army]] meant that China was fighting Japan "with one hand tied behind its back".<ref name=":Gao" />{{Rp|page=84}}

March of the Volunteers (''Chee lai!'') became newly founded [[China|People's Republic of China]]'s National Anthem after 1949. Its Chinese lyricist, [[Tian Han]], died in a Beijing prison in 1968, but Robeson continued to send royalties to his family.<ref name=avant>Liang Luo.<!--sic--> [https://www.academia.edu/1493511/International_Avant-Garde_and_the_Chinese_National_Anthem "International Avant-garde<!--sic--> and the Chinese National Anthem: Tian Han, Joris Ivens, and Paul Robeson" in ''The Ivens Magazine'', No.&nbsp;16] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306150508/https://www.academia.edu/1493511/International_Avant-Garde_and_the_Chinese_National_Anthem |date=March 6, 2019 }}. European Foundation Joris Ivens<!--sic--> (Nijmegen), October 2010. Retrieved 2015-01-22.</ref>

===1946–1949: Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations===
After the [[Moore's Ford lynchings]] of four African Americans in Georgia on July 25, 1946, Robeson met with [[Harry S. Truman|President Truman]] and admonished Truman by stating that if he did not enact legislation to end [[lynching]],{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p=307}} "the Negroes will defend themselves".{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p=307}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Group Confers with Truman on Lynching|date=September 24, 1946|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=kiojAAAAIBAJ&dq=paul%20robeson&pg=3729%2C2347331|work=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]]|page=2|access-date=May 29, 2020|archive-date=July 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728044630/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=kiojAAAAIBAJ&dq=paul+robeson&pg=3729%2C2347331|url-status=live}}</ref> Truman immediately terminated the meeting and declared that the time was not right to propose anti-lynching legislation.{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p=307}} Subsequently, Robeson publicly called upon all Americans to demand that Congress pass civil rights legislation.{{sfn|Nollen|2010|pages=157–156}} Robeson founded the [[American Crusade Against Lynching]] organization in 1946. This organization was thought to be a threat to the [[NAACP]] antiviolence movement. Robeson received support from [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] on this matter and launched the organization on the anniversary of the signing of the [[Emancipation Proclamation]], September 23.{{sfn|Lewis|2000|p=522}}

About this time, Robeson's belief that [[trade unionism]] was crucial to civil rights became a mainstay of his political beliefs as he became a proponent of the union activist and [[Communist Party USA]] member [[Revels Cayton]].{{sfn|Duberman|1989|pp=249–250}} Robeson was later called before the [[Jack Tenney (politician)#Tenney Committee|Tenney Committee]] where he responded to questions about his affiliation with the Communist Party USA by testifying that he was not a member of the party.{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p=241}} Nevertheless, two organizations with which Robeson was intimately involved, the [[Civil Rights Congress]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brady Siff|first=Sarah|date=May 2016|title=Policing the Policy: A Civil Rights Story|url=http://origins.osu.edu/article/policing-police-civil-rights-story|journal=Origins: Current Events in Historical Perspective|volume=9|access-date=September 21, 2018|archive-date=September 22, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922024520/http://origins.osu.edu/article/policing-police-civil-rights-story|url-status=live}}</ref> and the Council on African Affairs,{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p=296}} were placed on the [[Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Douglas B.|last=Cornell|title=Thomas Says Clark's List 'Farcical'|date=December 5, 1947|page=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=otQKAAAAIBAJ&dq=Douglas+B.+Cornell+1947+Civil+Rights+Congress&pg=PA1&article_id=5590,3959441
|newspaper=Prescott Evening Courier}}; cf. {{harvnb|Goldstein|2008|pp=62, 66, 88}}</ref> Subsequently, he was summoned before the [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary]], and when questioned about his affiliation with the Communist Party, he refused to answer, stating: "Some of the most brilliant and distinguished Americans are about to go to jail for the failure to answer that question, and I am going to join them, if necessary."<ref name="Chronology5">Bay Area Paul Robeson Centennial Committee, ''[http://bayarearobeson.org/Chronology_5.htm Paul Robeson Chronology (Part 5)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525230149/http://www.bayarearobeson.org/Chronology_5.htm |date=May 25, 2011 }}''.</ref><ref>{{YouTube|id=6y-xfqP6FOE|title=Paul Robeson Speaks! 1948 Senate Testimony}}</ref>

In 1948, Robeson was prominent in [[Henry A. Wallace]]'s bid for the Presidency of the United States,{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p=324}} during which Robeson traveled to the [[Deep South]], at risk to his own life, to campaign for him.{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p=326–327}} In the ensuing year, Robeson was forced to go overseas to work because his concert performances were canceled at the FBI's behest.{{sfn|Robeson|2001|p=137}} While on tour, he spoke at the [[World Peace Council]].{{sfn|Robeson|1978a|pp= 197–198}} The [[Associated Press]] published a false transcript of his speech which gave the impression that Robeson had equated America with a Fascist state.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=142–43}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=342–345, 687}}</ref> In an interview, Robeson said the "danger of Fascism [in the US] has averted".<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=142–1143}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|1978a|pp=197–198}}, {{harvnb|Seton|1958|p=179}}, [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/coldwar/interviews/episode-6/robeson1.html Interview with Paul Robeson, Jnr.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130214551/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/coldwar/interviews/episode-6/robeson1.html |date=January 30, 2012 }}</ref> Nevertheless, the speech publicly attributed to him was a catalyst for his being seen as an enemy of mainstream America.<ref>"Studs Terkel, Paul Robeson – Speak of Me As I Am, BBC, 1998".</ref> Robeson refused to bow to public criticism when he advocated in favor of twelve defendants, including his long-time friend, [[Benjamin J. Davis Jr.]], charged during the [[Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders]].<ref name="nyplprc">{{cite web|url=http://archives.nypl.org/scm/20649|title=Paul Robeson collection: 1925–1956 [bulk 1943–1956]|work=Paul Robeson collection, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, The New York Public Library|publisher=The New York Public Library, Archives & Manuscripts|access-date=March 9, 2018|archive-date=August 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801033902/http://archives.nypl.org/scm/20649|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Paul Robeson - Negro Songs - Soviet Ministry of Culture.JPG|thumb|Label of a record by Robeson published by the Soviet Ministry of Culture]]
Robeson traveled to Moscow in June 1949, and tried to find [[Itzik Feffer]] whom he had met during World War II. He let Soviet authorities know that he wanted to see him.{{sfn|Duberman|1989|pp=352–353}} Reluctant to lose Robeson as a propagandist for the Soviet Union,{{sfn|Lustiger|2003|pages=210–211}} the Soviets brought Feffer from prison to him. Feffer told him that Mikhoels had been murdered, and predicted that he would be executed.{{sfn|McConnell|2010|p=348}} To protect the Soviet Union's reputation,{{sfn|Seton|1958|pages=210–211}} and to keep the right wing of the United States from gaining the moral high ground, Robeson denied that any persecution existed in the Soviet Union,{{sfn|Duberman|1989|pages=353–354}} and kept the meeting secret for the rest of his life, except from his son.{{sfn|Seton|1958|pages=210–211}} On June 20, 1949, Robeson spoke at the {{ill|Paris Peace Congress|fr|Congrès mondial des partisans de la paix}} saying that "We in America do not forget that it was on the backs of the white workers from Europe and on the backs of millions of Blacks that the wealth of America was built. And we are resolved to share it equally. We reject any hysterical raving that urges us to make war on anyone. Our will to fight for peace is strong. We shall not make war on anyone. We shall not make [[Cold War|war on the Soviet Union]]. We oppose those who wish to build up [[West Germany|imperialist Germany]] and to [[Greek civil war|establish fascism in Greece]]. We wish peace with [[Francoist Spain|Franco's Spain]] despite her fascism. We shall support peace and friendship among all nations, with Soviet Russia and the [[people's Republic]]s." He was blacklisted for saying this in the mainstream press within the United States, including in many periodicals of the Negro press such as ''The Crisis''.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=142–143}}</ref>

In order to isolate Robeson politically,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] subpoenaed [[Jackie Robinson]]<ref name="ReferenceB">{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=358–360}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robinson|1978|pp=94–98}}</ref> to comment on Robeson's Paris speech.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Robinson testified that Robeson's statements, "'if accurately reported', were silly'".<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=361–362}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robinson|1978|pp=94–98}}</ref> Former first lady [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] noted, "Mr. Robeson does his people great harm in trying to line them up on the Communist side of [the] political picture. Jackie Robinson helps them greatly by his forthright statements."<ref name=Danielle_Butler_article>{{cite web |last=Butler |first=Danielle |title=Unpopular Black History Opinion: Jackie Robinson May Have Been an Opp |website=The Root |date=February 28, 2018 |url=https://www.theroot.com/unpopular-black-history-opinion-jackie-robinson-might-1823251643}}</ref> Days later, the announcement of a concert headlined by Robeson in New York City provoked the local press to decry the use of their community to support "subversives".<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=364}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|1981|p=181}}</ref> The [[Peekskill riots]] ensued in which violent anti-Robeson protests shut down a Robeson concert on August 27, 1949,<ref>{{cite book |title=Paul Robeson: The Great Forerunner |last=Wright |first=Charles H. |chapter=Paul Robeson at Peekskill |pages=134–136 |publisher=International Publishers |year=1998 |orig-date=1978 |editor1=Freedomways |isbn=071780724X}}</ref> and marred the aftermath of the replacement concert held eight days later.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=364–370}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|1981|p=181}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Roger M. |title=A Rough Sunday at Peekskill |journal=American Heritage Magazine |date=April 1976 |url=https://www.americanheritage.com/rough-sunday-peekskill#3 |access-date=September 1, 2021 |archive-date=September 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901224719/https://www.americanheritage.com/rough-sunday-peekskill#3 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===1950–1955: Blacklisted===
In its review of Christy Walsh's massive 1949 reference, ''College Football and All America Review'', the ''Los Angeles Times'' praised it as "the most complete source of past gridiron scores, players, coaches, etc., yet published",<ref>{{cite news |date=6 January 1950 |page=49 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |title=Sports News |url=https://latimes.newspapers.com/search/results/?date=1950-01&keyword=%22the+most+complete+source+of+past+gridiron+scores%22 }}</ref> but it failed to list Robeson as ever having played on the Rutgers team{{sfn|Walsh|1949|p=689}} or ever having been an All-American.<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=162}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|1978b|p=4}} Walsh only listed a ten-man All-American team in 1917 and he listed no team the following year due to World War I. {{harvnb|Walsh|1949|pp=16–18, 32}}. The information in the book was compiled from information supplied by the colleges, "..&nbsp;but many deserving names are missing entirely from the pages of [the] book because&nbsp;... their alma mater was unable to provide them. –&nbsp;[[Glenn Scobey Warner|Glenn S. Warner]]" {{harvnb|Walsh|1949|p=6}}. The Rutgers University list was presented to Walsh by Gordon A. McCoy, Director of Publicity for Rutgers, and although it says that Rutgers had two All-Americans as of 1949, Christy's book only lists the other All-American and not Robeson. {{harvnb|Walsh|1949|p= 684}}</ref> Months later, NBC canceled Robeson's appearance on [[Eleanor Roosevelt]]'s television program, which furthered his erasure from public view.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mrs. Roosevelt Sees a 'Misunderstanding' |newspaper=The New York Times |date=March 16, 1950 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1950/03/16/archives/mrs-roosevelt-sees-a-misunderstanding.html |access-date=October 22, 2023 |archive-date=May 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516091056/https://www.nytimes.com/1950/03/16/archives/mrs-roosevelt-sees-a-misunderstanding.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Robeson opposed U.S. involvement in the [[Korean War]] and condemned America's nuclear threats against China.<ref name=":Gao" />{{Rp|page=88}} In Robeson's opinion, the U.S. had manipulated the United Nations for [[American imperialism|imperialist]] purposes, and China's intervention in the Korean War was necessary to defend the security of millions of people in Asia.<ref name=":Gao" />{{Rp|page=88}} Robeson credited "American peace sentiment" as a crucial factor in President Truman not using nuclear weapons and in recalling General [[Douglas MacArthur]].<ref name=":Gao" />{{Rp|page=88}}

A month after Robeson began criticizing his country's role in the Korean War, the [[United States Department of State|Department of State]] demanded that he return his passport.<ref name=":Gao" />{{Rp|page=97}} Robeson refused.<ref name=":Gao" />{{Rp|page=97}} At the FBI's request, the State Department voided Robeson's passport and instructed customs officials to prevent any attempt by him to leave the country.<ref name=":Gao" />{{Rp|page=97}} Confining him inside the U.S. afforded him less freedom to express{{sfn|Wright|1975|p=97}} what some saw as his "extreme advocacy on behalf of the independence of the colonial peoples of Africa".{{sfn|Von Eschen|2014|pp=181–185}} It's estimated that the revocation of Robeson's travel privileges, and the resulting inability to earn fees overseas, caused his yearly income to drop from $150,000 to less than $3,000.<ref name=Danielle_Butler_article/> When Robeson met with State Department officials and asked why he was denied a passport, he was told that "his frequent criticism of the treatment of blacks in the United States should not be aired in foreign countries".{{sfn|Duberman|1989|pp=388–389}}

In 1950, Robeson co-founded, with [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], a monthly newspaper, [[Freedom (American newspaper)|''Freedom'']], showcasing his views and those of his circle. Most issues had a column by Robeson, on the front page. In the final issue, July–August 1955, an unsigned column on the front page of the newspaper described the struggle for the restoration of his passport. It called for support from the leading African-American organizations, and asserted that "Negroes, [and] all Americans who have breathed a sigh of relief at the easing of international tensions... have a stake in the Paul Robeson passport case". An article by Robeson appeared on the second page continuing the passport issue under the headline: "If Enough People Write Washington I'll Get My Passport in a Hurry."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Robeson |first1=Paul |title=If Enough People Write Washington I'll Get My Passport in a Hurry |work=Freedom |volume=V |issue=6 |publisher=Freedom Associates |date=July–August 1955 |hdl=2333.1/vhhmgvws |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In 1951, an article titled "Paul Robeson – the Lost Shepherd" was published in ''[[The Crisis]]'' and attributed to Robert Alan,<ref>"Paul Robeson – the Lost Shepherd". ''The Crisis'', November 1951, pp. 569–573.</ref> although Paul Jr. suspected it was written by ''[[New York Amsterdam News|Amsterdam News]]'' columnist Earl Brown.{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p=396}} [[J. Edgar Hoover]] and the U.S. State Department arranged for the article to be printed and distributed in Africa<!--unable to verify-->{{sfn|Foner|2001|pp=112–115}}<!--unable to verify--> in order to damage Robeson's reputation and reduce his popularity, and Communism's popularity, in colonial countries.{{sfn|Von Eschen|2014|p=127}} Another article by [[Roy Wilkins]] (now thought to have been the real author of "Paul Robeson – the Lost Shepherd") denounced Robeson as well as the CPUSA in terms consistent with the FBI's anti-Communist propaganda of the era.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=396}}; cf. <!--unable to verify-->{{harvnb|Foner|2001|pp=112–115}}<!--unable to verify--><!-- , Stalin's Greatest Defeat, The Crisis, Wilkins, Roy--></ref>

In December 1951, Robeson, in New York City, and [[William L. Patterson]], in Paris, presented the United Nations with a [[Civil Rights Congress]] petition titled [[We Charge Genocide]].{{sfn|Duberman|1989|pp=397–398}}<ref>{{cite news | first = Douglas B. | last = Cornell | title = UN Asked to Act Against Genocide in United States | date = December 29, 1951 | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=mdQmAAAAIBAJ&sjid=kgIGAAAAIBAJ&dq=we-charge-genocide&pg=2113%2C3191483 | work = The Afro American | page = 19 | access-date = September 5, 2021 | archive-date = September 5, 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210905231528/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=mdQmAAAAIBAJ&sjid=kgIGAAAAIBAJ&dq=we-charge-genocide&pg=2113,3191483 | url-status = live }}</ref> The document asserted that the United States federal government, by its failure to act against [[lynching in the United States]], was guilty of [[genocide]] under Article II of the [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide|UN Genocide Convention]]. The petition was not officially acknowledged by the UN, and, though receiving some favorable reception in Europe and in America's [[Black press]], was largely either ignored or criticized for its association with Communism in America's mainstream press.<ref name="Docker">{{cite journal |last=Docker |first=John |editor-last=Curthoys |editor-first=Ned |journal=Humanities Research |volume=XVI |number=2 |year=2010 |pages=49–74 |title=Raphaël Lemkin, creator of the concept of genocide: a world history perspective |doi=10.22459/HR.XVI.02.2010.03 |doi-access=free |url=http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p24011/pdf/raphael.pdf |archive-date=22 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422025329/http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p24011/pdf/raphael.pdf}}</ref>

In 1952, Robeson was awarded the [[Lenin Peace Prize|International Stalin Prize]] by the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Paul Robeson receives Stalin Peace Prize |date=October 1953 |url=https://credo.library.umass.edu/view/pageturn/mums312-b140-i428/#page/1/mode/1up |journal=New World Review |via=W. E. B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312). Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries }}</ref> Unable to travel to Moscow, he accepted the award in New York.<ref>{{cite news|title=Paul Robeson Gets Stalin Peace Prize|date=September 25, 1953|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=5FtTAAAAIBAJ&dq=stalin%20peace%20prize%20robeson&pg=7155%2C6420665|work=[[The Victoria Advocate]]|page=5|access-date=May 29, 2020|archive-date=July 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728044552/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=5FtTAAAAIBAJ&dq=stalin+peace+prize+robeson&pg=7155%2C6420665|url-status=live}}</ref> In April 1953, shortly after Stalin's death, Robeson penned "To You My Beloved Comrade", praising Stalin as dedicated to peace and a guide to the world: "Through his deep humanity, by his wise understanding, he leaves us a rich and monumental heritage."{{sfn|Robeson|1978a|pp=347–349}} Robeson's opinions about the Soviet Union kept his passport out of reach and stopped his return to the entertainment industry and the civil rights movement.{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p=354}} In his opinion, the Soviet Union was the guarantor of political balance in the world.{{sfn|Robeson|1978a|pp=236–241}}

In a symbolic act of defiance against the travel ban, in May 1952, labor unions in the United States and Canada organized a concert at the International [[Peace Arch]] on the border between Washington state and the Canadian province of British Columbia.{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p= 400}} Robeson returned to perform a second concert at the Peace Arch in 1953,{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p= 411}} and over the next two years, two further concerts took place. In this period, with the encouragement of his friend the Welsh politician [[Aneurin Bevan]], Robeson recorded a number of radio concerts for supporters in Wales.

===1956–1957: End of McCarthyism===
{{Main|Paul Robeson congressional hearings}}
On June 12, 1956, Robeson was called before the House Un-American Activities Committee after he refused to sign an affidavit affirming he was not a Communist. He attempted to read his prepared statement into the [[Congressional Record]], but the Committee denied him that opportunity.<ref>{{cite web |title=STATEMENT: Paul Robeson Before the House Un-American Activities Committee, June 12, 1956 |website=Black Agenda Report |url=https://www.blackagendareport.com/statement-paul-robeson-house-un-american-activities-committee-june-12-1956 |date=11 September 2024}}</ref> During questioning, he invoked the [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]] and declined to reveal his political affiliations. When asked why he had not remained in the Soviet Union, given his affinity with its political ideology, he replied, "because my father was a slave and my people died to build [the United States and], I am going to stay here, and have a part of it just like you and no fascist-minded people will drive me from it!"<ref name="HUAC">{{cite web|url=http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6440|title=Testimony of Paul Robeson before the House Committee on Un-American Activities, June 12, 1956|publisher=History Matters|access-date=January 30, 2015|archive-date=February 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210221223044/http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6440/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VhnCrHZkgNk|title=Testimony of Paul Robeson before the House Committee on Un-American Activities, June 12, 1956|date=February 28, 2019 |publisher=YouTube|access-date=November 5, 2021|archive-date=November 5, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105160911/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VhnCrHZkgNk|url-status=live}}</ref> At that hearing, Robeson stated "Whether I am or not a Communist is irrelevant. The question is whether American citizens, regardless of their political beliefs or sympathies, may enjoy their constitutional rights."<ref name="HUAC2">{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/robeson|title=The Many Faces of Paul Robeson <!--June 12, 1956-->|publisher=US National Archives|access-date=February 3, 2017|date=August 15, 2016|archive-date=February 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227134310/https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/robeson|url-status=live}}</ref>

Due to the reaction to the promulgation of Robeson's political views, his recordings and films were removed from public distribution, and he was universally condemned in the U.S. press.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/archived/intothemusic/paul-robeson/4691690|title=Paul Robeson: the singer who fought for justice and paid with his life|date=June 7, 2013|first=Nicole|last=Steinke|work=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=May 7, 2019|archive-date=January 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124004825/https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/archived/intothemusic/paul-robeson/4691690|url-status=live}}</ref> During the height of the Cold War, it became increasingly difficult in the United States to hear Robeson sing on commercial radio, buy his music or see his films.{{sfn|Robeson|1978b|pp=3–8}}

In 1956, in the United Kingdom, [[Topic Records]], at that time part of the Workers Music Association, released a single of Robeson singing the labor anthem "[[Joe Hill (song)|Joe Hill]]", written by [[Alfred Hayes (writer)|Alfred Hayes]] and [[Earl Robinson]], backed with "[[John Brown's Body]]". In 1956, after public pressure brought a one-time exemption to the travel ban, Robeson performed two concerts in Canada in February, one in Toronto and the other at a union convention in Sudbury, Ontario.{{sfn|Goodman|2013|page=224}}

Still unable to perform abroad in person, on May 26, 1957, Robeson sang for a London audience at [[Camden Town Hall|St. Pancras Town Hall]] (where the 1,000 available concert tickets for "Let Robeson Sing" sold out within an hour) via the recently completed transatlantic telephone cable [[TAT-1]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Robeson sings: the first transatlantic telephone cable |url=https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/robeson-sings-first-transatlantic-telephone-cable |access-date=January 11, 2023 |website=Science Museum |language=en |date=October 10, 2018 |archive-date=January 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111131959/https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/robeson-sings-first-transatlantic-telephone-cable |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite episode|title=TAT-1|series=Hidden Histories of the Information Age|credits=Presenters: [[Aleks Krotoski]]|station=[[BBC Radio 4]]|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b04m3bcc|airdate=January 5, 2016|minutes=9:50|access-date=December 20, 2024|archive-date=June 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620062847/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b04m3bcc|url-status=live}}</ref> In October of that year, using the same technology, Robeson sang to an audience of "perhaps 5,000" at [[Grand Pavilion, Porthcawl|Porthcawl's Grand Pavilion]] in Wales.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/explorefurther/images/robeson/|title=Showcase: Let Robeson Sing|last=Howard|first=Tony|date=January 29, 2009|publisher=[[University of Warwick]]|access-date=November 15, 2011|archive-date=February 20, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220112912/http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/explorefurther/images/robeson/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sparrow |first1=Jeff|author-link=Jeff Sparrow|title=How Paul Robeson found his political voice in the Welsh valleys|type=edited extract from Sparrow's ''No Way But This – In Search of Paul Robeson'' (2017)|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2017/jul/02/how-paul-robeson-found-political-voice-in-welsh-valleys |newspaper=[[The Observer]] |access-date=September 7, 2021 |date=July 2, 2017 |archive-date=May 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506081954/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2017/jul/02/how-paul-robeson-found-political-voice-in-welsh-valleys |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s denunciation of [[Stalinism]] at the [[20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|1956 Party Congress]] silenced Robeson on Stalin, although Robeson continued to praise the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p=437}} That year Robeson, along with close friend [[W.E.B. Du Bois]], compared the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|anti-Soviet uprising in Hungary]] to the "same sort of people who overthrew the Spanish Republican Government" and supported the Soviet invasion and suppression of the revolt.<ref name="finger"/>

Robeson's passport was finally restored in 1958 as a result of the U.S. Supreme Court's 5 to 4 decision in ''[[Kent v. Dulles]]'' where the majority ruled that the denial of a passport without [[due process]] amounted to a violation of constitutionally protected liberty under the [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|5th Amendment]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Glass |first1=Andrew |title=Paul Robeson loses passport appeal, Aug. 16, 1955 |journal=Politico |date=August 16, 2018 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2018/08/16/paul-robeson-loses-passport-appeal-aug-16-1955-774738 |access-date=September 7, 2017 |archive-date=November 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126072600/https://www.politico.com/story/2018/08/16/paul-robeson-loses-passport-appeal-aug-16-1955-774738 |url-status=live }}</ref>