Editing Questioned document examination (section)

==Examination==
===Examination types===
Examinations and comparisons conducted by document examiners can be diverse and may involve any of the following:
*[[Handwriting]] ([[cursive]] / [[Block letters|printing]]) and [[signature]]s
*[[Typewriter#Forensic examination|Typewriter]]s, [[photocopier]]s, [[laser printer]]s, ink-jet printers, [[fax machine]]s
*[[Chequewriter]]s, [[rubber stamp]]s, price markers, [[label maker]]s
*[[Printmaking|Printing processes]]
*Ink, pencil and paper
*Alterations, additions, erasures, obliterations
*[[Electrostatic Detection Apparatus|Indentation]] detection and/or decipherment
*[[Sequence determination]]
*Physical matching

===Principle of identification===
The concept of [[Forensic identification|'identification']] as it is applied in the forensic sciences is open to discussion and debate.<ref>In [[biometrics]], this concept is generally referred to as either 'verification' or '[[authentication]]' while the term 'identification' is used to assign an individual to a particular class or group.</ref> Nonetheless, the traditional approach in the discipline of forensic document examination is best expressed as follows:
<blockquote>"When any two items possess a combination of independent discriminating elements (characteristics) that are similar and/or correspond in their relationships to one another, of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility of their occurrence by pure coincidence, and there are no inexplicable disparities, it may be concluded that they are the same in nature or are related to a common source (the principle of identification)."<ref name="huber_note">
{{Citation
  | last1 = Huber
  | first1 = Roy A.
  | last2 = Headrick
  | first2 = A.M.
  | title = Handwriting Identification: Facts and Fundamentals
  | place = New York
  | publisher = CRC Press
  |date=April 1999
  | url = http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9780849312854
  | isbn = 0-8493-1285-X 
}}</ref>{{rp|84}}</blockquote>

The evaluation of such characteristics is now predominantly subjective though efforts to meaningfully quantify this type of information are ongoing. Subjective evaluation does not mean that the results of properly conducted comparisons will be unreliable or inaccurate. To the contrary, scientific testing has shown that professional document examiners (as a group) out-perform lay-people when comparing handwriting or signatures to assess authorship.<ref name="Kam_note">Kam et al, A Decade of Writer Identification Proficiency Tests for Forensic Document Examiners, ASQDE, 2003.</ref>

However, this type of subjective analysis depends greatly upon the competence of an individual examiner.

It follows that
# an examiner should follow appropriate case examination protocols carefully and evaluate all possible propositions,
# an examiner should be properly trained and their training should include adequate testing of their abilities,
# the formal case examination procedure should incorporate some form of secondary review (ideally, independent in nature) and
# every examiner should make every effort to demonstrate and maintain their competency through professional certification and ongoing proficiency testing.

===Handwriting examinations===

The examination of handwriting to assess potential authorship proceeds from the above principle of identification by applying it to a comparison of samples of handwritten material. Generally known as ACE-V, there are three stages in the process of examination.<ref name="huber_note"/>

As Huber and Headrick explain in their text, these are as follows:<ref name="huber_note"/>{{rp|34}}
# Analysis or Discriminating Element Determination:<blockquote>The unknown item and the known items must, by analysis, examination, or study, be reduced to a matter of their discriminating elements. These are the habits of behaviour or of performance (i.e., features or characteristics and, in other disciplines, the properties) that serve to differentiate between products or people which may be directly observable, measurable, or otherwise perceptible aspects of the item.</blockquote>
# Comparison:<blockquote>The discriminating elements of the unknown, observed or determined through analysis, examination, or study, must be compared with those known, observed, or recorded of the standard item(s).</blockquote>
# Evaluation:<blockquote>Similarities or dissimilarities in discriminating elements will each have a certain value for discrimination purposes, determined by their cause, independence, or likelihood of occurrence. The weight or significance of the similarity or difference of each element must then be considered and the explanation(s) for them proposed.</blockquote>
# Optionally, the procedure may involve a fourth step consisting of verification/validation or [[peer review]].

The authors note further that "This process underlies the identification of any matter, person, or thing, by any witness, whether technical, forensic, or not."  As such, it is not a formal method, but rather the elements that go into the method.

[[ASTM]] published a standard guide for the examination of handwriting titled "E2290-07a: Examination of Handwritten Items" which was withdrawn in 2016.<ref name="astm_method">{{cite web | title=Standard Guide for Examination of Handwritten Items (Withdrawn 2016)|author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e2290-07a.html | access-date=23 August 2023}}</ref>  At that time, it was published as the
''SWGDOC Standard for Examination of Handwritten Items''.<ref>{{cite web |title=SWGDOC Standard for Examination of Handwritten Items |url=https://swgdoc.org/documents/SWGDOC%20Standard%20for%20Examination%20of%20Handwritten%20Items.pdf |publisher=SWGDOC|access-date=7 June 2023 |id=E01-13}}</ref> This was superseded in 2022 by the Academy Standards Board document ''Standard for Examination of Handwritten Items''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Academy Standards Board Search |url=https://www.aafs.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/070_Std_e1.pdf|website=AAFS |publisher=ASB Forensic Document Examination Consensus Body |id=ANSI/ASB Standard 70|access-date=7 June 2023}}</ref> Some of the guides listed under "Other Examinations" below also apply to forensic handwriting comparisons (e.g., E444 or E1658).

An alternative guide for the examination of handwriting and signatures has been developed by the Forensic Expertise Profiling Laboratory (School of Human Biosciences, [[La Trobe University]], Victoria, Australia).

The [[European Network of Forensic Science Institutes]] has also published a 'Best Practice Manual for the Forensic Handwriting Examination'.<ref>{{cite web |title=Best Practice Manual for the Forensic Handwriting Examination (ENFSI-BPM-FHX-01 Edition 04 – September 2022) |url=https://enfsi.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/BPM-Handwriting-Ed.-4.pdf |website=Best Practice Manuals and Forensic Guidelines |publisher=ENFSI |access-date=7 June 2023 }}</ref>

===Other examinations===
Aside from E2290 mentioned above, many standard guides pertaining to the examination of questioned documents were published by ASTM International.<ref name="astm_note">{{cite web | title=Matching Standards Under the Jurisdiction of E30.90 by Status (list)|author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/jurisdiction-e3090 | access-date=9 June 2023}}</ref> They include the following:
:*E0444-09 Scope of Work Relating to Forensic Document Examiners (Withdrawn 2018)<ref name="astm_scope">{{cite web | title=Standard Guide for Scope of Work of Forensic Document Examiners (Withdrawn 2018)|author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e0444-09.html | access-date=18 August 2023}}</ref>
:*E2195-09 Terminology: Examination of Questioned Documents (Withdrawn 2018)<ref>{{cite web | title=Standard Terminology Relating to the Examination of Questioned Documents (Withdrawn 2018))|author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e2195-09.html | access-date=18 August 2023}}</ref>
:*E1658-08 Terminology: Expressing Conclusions of Forensic Document Examiners (Withdrawn 2017)<ref>{{cite web | title=Standard Terminology for Expressing Conclusions of Forensic Document Examiners (Withdrawn 2017)|author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e1658-08.html | access-date=18 August 2023}}</ref>
:*E1422-05 Standard Guide for Test Methods for Forensic Writing Ink Comparison (Withdrawn 2014)<ref name="writing-ink">{{cite web | title=Standard Guide for Writing Ink Identification (Withdrawn 2013)|author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e1789-04.html | access-date=19 August 2023}}</ref>
:*E1789-04 Writing Ink Identification (Withdrawn 2013)<ref name="writing-ink"/>
:*E2285-08 Standard Guide for Examination of Mechanical Checkwriter Impressions (Withdrawn 2017)<ref>{{cite web | title=Standard Guide for Examination of Mechanical Checkwriter Impressions (Withdrawn 2017) |author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e2285-08.html | access-date=26 August 2023}}</ref>
:*E2286-08a Standard Guide for Examination of Dry Seal Impressions (Withdrawn 2017)<ref>{{cite web | title=Standard Guide for Examination of Dry Seal Impressions (Withdrawn 2017) |author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International|  url=https://www.astm.org/e2286-08a.html | access-date=26 August 2023}}</ref>
:* E2287-09 Standard Guide for Examination of Fracture Patterns and Paper Fiber Impressions on Single-Strike Film Ribbons and Typed Text (Withdrawn 2018)<ref>{{cite web | title=E2287-09 Standard Guide for Examination of Fracture Patterns and Paper Fiber Impressions on Single-Strike Film Ribbons and Typed Text (Withdrawn 2018)|author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e2287-09.html | access-date=17 October 2023}}</ref>
:*E2288-09 Standard Guide for Physical Match of Paper Cuts, Tears, and Perforations in Forensic Document Examinations (Withdrawn 2018)<ref>{{cite web | title=E2288-09 Standard Guide for Physical Match of Paper Cuts, Tears, and Perforations in Forensic Document Examinations (Withdrawn 2018)|author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e2288-09.html | access-date=17 October 2023}}</ref>
:*E2289-08 Standard Guide for Examination of Rubber Stamp Impressions (Withdrawn 2017)<ref>{{cite web | title=Standard Guide for Examination of Rubber Stamp Impressions (Withdrawn 2017)|author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e2289-08.html | access-date=17 October 2023}}</ref>
:*E2291-03 E2291-03 Standard Guide for Indentation Examinations (Withdrawn 2012)<ref>{{cite web | title=Standard Guide for Indentation Examinations (Withdrawn 2012)|author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e2291-03.html | access-date=17 October 2023}}</ref>
:*E2325-05e1 Standard Guide for Non-destructive Examination of Paper (Withdrawn 2014)<ref>{{cite web | title=Standard Guide for Non-destructive Examination of Paper (Withdrawn 2014)|author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e2325-05e1.html | access-date=17 October 2023}}</ref>
:*E2331-04 Standard Guide for Examination of Altered Documents (Withdrawn 2013)<ref>{{cite web | title=Standard Guide for Examination of Altered Documents (Withdrawn 2013) | author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e2331-04.html | access-date=17 October 2023}}</ref>
:*E2388-11 Minimum Training Requirements for Forensic Document Examiners (Withdrawn 2020)<ref name="astm_training" />
:*E2389-05 Standard Guide for Examination of Documents Produced with Liquid Ink Jet Technology (Withdrawn 2014)<ref>{{cite web | title=Standard Guide for Examination of Documents Produced with Liquid Ink Jet Technology (Withdrawn 2014) | author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e2389-05.html | access-date=17 November 2023}}</ref>
:*E2390-06 Standard Guide for Examination of Documents Produced with Toner Technology (Withdrawn 2015)<ref>{{cite web | title=Standard Guide for Examination of Documents Produced with Toner Technology (Withdrawn 2015) | author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e2390-06.html | access-date=17 November 2023}}</ref>
:*E2494-08 Standard Guide for Examination of Typewritten Items (Withdrawn 2017)<ref>{{cite web | title=Standard Guide for Examination of Typewritten Items (Withdrawn 2017) | author=Subcommittee E30.90 on Executive | publisher=ASTM International| url=https://www.astm.org/e2494-08.html | access-date=17 November 2023}}</ref>

All withdrawn standards listed above have been taken over and are presently available on the SWGDOC (The Scientific Working Group for Document Examiners) website, including links to updated versions of the documents.<ref name="swgdoc" />

Not all laboratories or examiners use or follow ASTM guidelines. These are guidelines and not requirements. There are other ASTM guides of a more general nature that apply (e.g., E 1732: Terminology Relating to Forensic Science). Copies of ASTM Standards can be obtained from [[ASTM International]].

'''ANSI/ASB Standards and Guides''' for Questioned Documents are being published to replace previous ASTM/SWGDOC documents. As of 2023-12-25, the following have been published:<ref name="asb_note">
{{cite web | title=M |author=ASB Forensic Document Examination Consensus Body | publisher=Academy Standards Board| url=https://www.aafs.org/academy-standards-board| access-date=25 December 2023}}</ref>
:*ANSI/ASB STANDARD 011 | QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS Scope of Expertise in Forensic Document Examination<ref>{{cite web
| title=Scope of Expertise in Forensic Document Examination
| author=ASB Forensic Document Examination Consensus Body
| date=19 August 2022
| publisher=Academy Standards Board
| url=https://www.aafs.org/asb-standard/scope-expertise-forensic-document-examination
| access-date=25 December 2023}}</ref>
:*ANSI/ASB STANDARD 035 | QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS Standard for the Examination of Documents for Alterations<ref>{{cite web
| title=Standard for the Examination of Documents for Alterations
| author=ASB Forensic Document Examination Consensus Body
| date=13 September 2021
| publisher=Academy Standards Board
| url=https://www.aafs.org/asb-standard/standard-examination-documents-alterations
| access-date=25 December 2023}}</ref>
:*ANSI/ASB STANDARD 044 | QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS Standard for Examination of Documents for Indentations<ref>{{cite web
| title=Standard for Examination of Documents for Indentations
| author=ASB Forensic Document Examination Consensus Body
| date=13 September 2021
| publisher=Academy Standards Board
| url=https://www.aafs.org/asb-standard/standard-examination-documents-indentations
| access-date=25 December 2023}}</ref>
:*ANSI/ASB STANDARD 070 | QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS Standard for Examination of Handwritten Items<ref>{{cite web
| title=Standard for Examination of Handwritten Items
| author=ASB Forensic Document Examination Consensus Body
| publisher=Academy Standards Board
| url=https://www.aafs.org/asb-standard/standard-examination-handwritten-items
| access-date=25 December 2023}}</ref>
:*ANSI/ASB STANDARD 117 | QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS Standard for Examination of Stamping Devices and Stamp Impressions<ref>{{cite web
| title=Standard for Examination of Stamping Devices and Stamp Impressions
| author=ASB Forensic Document Examination Consensus Body
| date=13 September 2021
| publisher=Academy Standards Board
| url=https://www.aafs.org/asb-standard/standard-examination-stamping-devices-and-stamp-impressions
| access-date=25 December 2023}}</ref>
:*ANSI/ASB STANDARD 127 | QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS Standard for the Preservation and Examination of Charred Documents<ref>{{cite web
| title=Standard for the Preservation and Examination of Charred Documents
| author=ASB Forensic Document Examination Consensus Body
| publisher=Academy Standards Board
| url=https://www.aafs.org/asb-standard/standard-preservation-and-examination-charred-documents
| access-date=25 December 2023}}</ref>
:*ANSI/ASB STANDARD 128 | QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS Standard for the Preservation and Examination of Liquid Soaked Documents<ref>{{cite web
| title=Standard for the Preservation and Examination of Liquid Soaked Documents
| author=ASB Forensic Document Examination Consensus Body
| publisher=Academy Standards Board
| url=https://www.aafs.org/asb-standard/standard-preservation-and-examination-liquid-soaked-documents
| access-date=23 February 2024}}</ref>
:*ANSI/ASB STANDARD 172 | QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS Standard for Examination of Mechanical Checkwriter Impressions and Machines<ref>{{cite web
| title=Standard for Examination of Mechanical Checkwriter Impressions and Machines
| author=ASB Forensic Document Examination Consensus Body
| publisher=Academy Standards Board
| url=https://www.aafs.org/asb-standard/standard-examination-mechanical-checkwriter-impressions-and-machines
| access-date=23 February 2024}}</ref>
'''Organization of scientific advisory committees (OSAC) Registry''' includes standards for Questioned Documents on the OSAC Registry.<ref>{{cite web |title=OSAC Registry |url=https://www.nist.gov/organization-scientific-area-committees-forensic-science/osac-registry |access-date=31 March 2024 |quote=The OSAC Registry is a repository of selected published and proposed standards for forensic science. These documents contain minimum requirements, best practices, standard protocols, terminology, or other information to promote valid, reliable, and reproducible forensic results. The standards on this Registry have undergone a technical and quality review process that actively encourages feedback from forensic science practitioners, research scientists, human factors experts, statisticians, legal experts, and the public. Placement on the Registry requires a consensus (as evidenced by 2/3 vote or more) of both the OSAC subcommittee that proposed the inclusion of the standard and the Forensic Science Standards Board. OSAC encourages the forensic science community to implement the published and proposed standards on the Registry to help advance the practice of forensic science.}}</ref><ref>The OSAC Registry includes both SDO-published standards and OSAC Proposed Standards.</ref>
:*ANSI/ASB Standard 011, Scope of Expertise in Forensic Document Examination. 2022. 1st. Ed.<ref>{{cite web |title=ANSI/ASB Standard 011, Scope of Expertise in Forensic Document Examination. 2022. 1st. Ed. |url=https://www.aafs.org/asb-standard/scope-expertise-forensic-document-examination |website=OSAC Registry |date=19 August 2022 |access-date=31 March 2024}}</ref>
:*ANSI/ASB Standard 044, Standard for Examination of Documents for Indentations. 2019. 1st. Ed.<ref>{{cite web |title=ANSI/ASB Standard 044, Standard for Examination of Documents for Indentations. 2019. 1st. Ed.|url=https://www.aafs.org/asb-standard/standard-examination-documents-indentations |website=OSAC Registry |date=13 September 2021 |access-date=31 March 2024}}</ref>