Editing Recall (memory) (section)

==Factors that affect recall==
===Attention===
The effect of [[attention]] on memory recall has surprising results. It seems that the only time attention largely affects memory is during the encoding phase. During this phase, performing a parallel task can severely impair retrieval success.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Craik | first1 = F.I. | last2 = Naveh-Benjamin | first2 = M. | last3 = Ishaik | first3 = G. | last4 = Anderson | first4 = N.D. | year = 2000 | title = Divided Attention During Encoding and Retrieval: Differential Control Effects? | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition | volume = 26 | issue = 6| pages = 1744–1749 | doi=10.1037/0278-7393.26.6.1744| pmid = 11185794 }}</ref> It is believed that this phase requires much attention to properly encode the information at hand, and thus a distractor task does not allow proper input and reduces the amount of information learned.

One's attention to words is impacted by emotion grasping vocabulary. Negative and positive words are better recalled than neutral words that are spoken.<ref name="Gotoh, F. 2012">{{cite journal | last1 = Gotoh | first1 = F | year = 2012 | title = Affective valence of words impacts recall from auditory working memory | journal = Journal of Cognitive Psychology | volume = 24 | issue = 2| pages = 117–124 | doi = 10.1080/20445911.2011.589380 | s2cid = 144601616 }}</ref> Many different ways that attention is focused on hearing what the speaker has to say are the inflection of the presenter's voice in a sad, content, or frustrated sound or in the use of words that are close to the heart.<ref name="Gotoh, F. 2012"/> A study was conducted to observe if the use of emotional vocabulary was a key receptor of recall memory. The groups were put into the same lecture halls and given the same speakers, but the results came back to determine that the inflection and word choice recalled by the listeners concluded that emotional words, phrases, and sounds are more memorable than neutral speakers.<ref name="Gotoh, F. 2012"/>

Recall memory is linked with instincts and mechanisms. In order to remember how an event happened, to learn from it or avoid an agitator, connections are made with emotions. For instance, if a speaker is very calm and neutral, the effectiveness of encoding memory is very low and listeners get the gist of what the speaker is discussing. On the other hand, if a speaker is shouting and/or using emotionally driven words, listeners tend to remember key phrases and the meaning of the speech.<ref name="Gotoh, F. 2012"/> This is full access of the fight or flight mechanism all people have functioning in the brain, but based on what triggers this mechanism will lead to better recall of it. People tend to focus their attention on cues that are loud, very soft, or something unusual. This makes the auditory system pick up the differences in regular speaking and meaningful speech, when something significant is spoken in the discussion people home in on the message at that part of the speech but tend to lose the other part of the discussion.<ref name="Gotoh, F. 2012"/> Our brains sense differences in speech and when those differences occur the brain encodes that part of speech into memory and the information can be recalled for future reference.

===Motivation===
Motivation is a factor that encourages a person to perform and succeed at the task at hand. In an experiment done by Roebers, Moga and Schneider (2001), participants were placed in either forced report, free report or free report plus incentive groups. In each group, they found that the amount of correct information recalled did not differ, yet in the group where participants were given an incentive they had higher accuracy results.<ref name="Roebers">{{cite journal | last1 = Roebers | first1 = C.M. | last2 = Moga | first2 = N. | last3 = Schneider | first3 = W. | year = 2001 | title = The Role of Accuracy Motivation on Children's and Adults' Event Recall | journal = Journal of Experimental Child Psychology | volume = 78 | issue = 4| pages = 313–329 | doi=10.1006/jecp.2000.2577| pmid = 11243692 }}</ref> This means that presenting participants with an encouragement to provide correct information motivates them to be more precise. However, this is only true if the perception is that success is providing correct information. When it is believed that success is the completion of the task rather than the accuracy of that completion, the number of responses is higher, yet its accuracy is lowered. This shows that the results are dependent on how success is defined to the participant. In the referred experiment, the participants that were placed in the forced response group had the lowest overall accuracy; they had no motivation to provide accurate responses and were forced to respond even when they were unsure of the answer. Another study done by Hill RD, Storandt M, and Simeone C<ref>'The effects of memory skills training and incentives on free recall in older learners' by Hill RD, Storandt M, Simeone C, U.S. National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, 1990 Nov</ref> tested the impact of memory skills training and external reward on free recall of serial word lists. Effects similar to those reported in the previous study were seen in children—in contrast to older learners.<ref>'Incentive level influence on overt rehearsal and free recall as a function of age', Anthony J Cuvo, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, Volume 18, Issue 1</ref>

===Interference===
In the absence of interference, there are two factors at play when recalling a list of items: the recency and the primacy effects. The recency effect occurs when the short-term memory is used to remember the most recent items, and the primacy effect occurs when the long-term memory has encoded the earlier items. The recency effect can be eliminated if there is a period of interference between the input and the output of information extending longer than the holding time of short-term memory (15–30 seconds). This occurs when a person is given subsequent information to recall preceding the recall of the initial information.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bjork | first1 = R.A. | last2 = Whitten | first2 = W.B. | year = 1974 | title = Recency-Sensitive Retrieval Processes in Long-Term Free Recall | url =https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/22374/1/0000823.pdf | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 6 | issue = 2| pages = 173–189 | doi=10.1016/0010-0285(74)90009-7| hdl = 2027.42/22374 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> The primacy effect, however, is not affected by the interference of recall. The elimination of the last few items from memory is due to the displacement of these items from short-term memory, by the distracting task. As they have not been recited and rehearsed, they are not moved into long-term memory and are thus lost. A task as simple as counting backwards can change memory recall; however an empty delay interval has no effect.<ref name="Cohen">{{cite journal | last1 = Cohen | first1 = R.L. | year = 1989 | title = The Effects of Interference Tasks on Recency in the Free Recall of Action Events | journal = Psychology Research | volume = 51 | issue = 4| pages = 176–80 | doi=10.1007/bf00309145| pmid = 2616696 | s2cid = 23747940 }}</ref> This is because the person can continue to rehearse the items in their working memory to be remembered without interference. Cohen (1989) found that there is better recall for an action in the presence of interference if that action is physically performed during the encoding phase.<ref name="Cohen"/> It has also been found that recalling some items can interfere and inhibit the recall of other items.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Roediger | first1 = H.L. | last2 = Karpicke | first2 = J.D. | year = 2006 | title = The Power of Testing Memory: Basic Research and Implications for Educational Practice | journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science | volume = 1 | issue = 3 | pages = 181–210 | doi = 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x | pmid = 26151629 | s2cid = 2184171 | url = http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Roediger%20%26%20Karpicke%20%282006%29_PPS.pdf | access-date = 2017-10-28 | archive-date = 2017-08-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829234000/http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Roediger%20%26%20Karpicke%20%282006%29_PPS.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> Another stream of thought and evidence suggests that the effects of interference on recency and primacy are relative, determined by the ratio rule (retention interval to inter item presentation distractor rate) and they exhibit time-scale invariance.<ref>'Primacy and Recency in the Continuous Distractor Paradigm' Steven E Poltrock and Colin M MacLeod, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 1977, Vol 3</ref>

===Context===
Context-dependency effects on recall are typically interpreted as evidence that the characteristics of the environment are encoded as part of the memory trace and can be used to enhance retrieval of the other information in the trace.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Eich | first1 = J.E. | year = 1980 | title = The cue-dependent nature of state-dependent retrieval | journal = Memory and Cognition | volume = 8 | issue = 2| pages = 157–173 | doi=10.3758/bf03213419| pmid = 7382817 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In other words, you can recall more when the environments are similar in both the learning and recall phases. Context cues appear to be important in the retrieval of newly learned meaningful information. In a classic study by Godden and Baddeley (1975), using free recall of wordlist demonstrated that deep-sea divers had better recall when there was a match between the learning and recalling environment. Lists learned underwater were recalled best underwater and lists learned on land were recalled best on land."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Godden | first1 = D.R. | last2 = Baddeley | first2 = A.D. | year = 1975 | title = Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: on land and underwater | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 66 | issue = 3| pages = 325–331 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1975.tb01468.x| s2cid = 10699186 }}</ref> An academic application would be that students may perform better on exams by studying in silence, because exams are usually done in silence.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Grant | first1 = H. M. | display-authors = etal | year = 1998 | title = Context-dependent memory for meaningful material: information for students | journal = [[Applied Cognitive Psychology]] | volume = 12 | issue = 6| pages = 617–623 | doi=10.1002/(sici)1099-0720(1998120)12:6<617::aid-acp542>3.0.co;2-5| citeseerx = 10.1.1.497.6500 }}</ref>

===State-dependent memory===
[[State-dependent learning|State-dependent retrieval]] is demonstrated when material learned under one State is best recalled in that same state. A study by Carter and Cassady (1998) showed this effect with [[antihistamine]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Carter | first1 = S. J. | last2 = Cassaday | first2 = H. J. | year = 1998 | title = State-Dependent Retrieval and Chlorpheniramine | journal = Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental | volume = 13 | issue = 7| pages = 513–523 | doi=10.1002/(sici)1099-1077(1998100)13:7<513::aid-hup39>3.0.co;2-k| s2cid = 1004113 }}</ref> In other words, if you study while on hay fever tablets, then you will recall more of what you studied if you test yourself while on antihistamines in comparison to testing yourself while not on antihistamines after having studied on antihistamines.

A study by Block and Ghoneim (2000) found that, relative to a matched group of healthy, non-drug-using controls, heavy [[marijuana]] use is associated with small but significant impairments in memory retrieval.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Block | first1 = RI | last2 = O'Leary | first2 = DS | last3 = Ehrhardt | first3 = JC | last4 = Augustinack | first4 = JC | last5 = Ghoneim | first5 = M.M. | last6 = Arndt | first6 = S | last7 = Hall | first7 = J.A. | year = 2000 | title = Effects of frequent marijuana use on brain tissue volume and composition | journal = NeuroReport | volume = 11 | issue = 3| pages = 491–496 | doi=10.1097/00001756-200002280-00013| pmid = 10718301 | s2cid = 37654403 }}</ref>[[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] induces loss of internal control and cognitive impairment, especially impairment of attention and memory, for the duration of the intoxication period.<ref name="Lundqvist">{{cite journal | last1 = Lundqvist | first1 = T | year = 2005 | title = Cognitive consequences of cannabis use: Comparison with abuse to stimulants and heroin with regard to attention, memory and executive functions | doi = 10.1016/j.pbb.2005.02.017 | pmid = 15925403 | journal = Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior | volume = 81 | issue = 2| pages = 319–330 | s2cid = 18680318 | url = http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/140422 }}</ref>

Stimulants, such as [[cocaine]], [[amphetamines]] or [[caffeine]] are known to improve recall in humans.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Soetens | first1 = E. | last2 = D'Hooge | first2 = J.E. | last3 = Hueting | first3 = R. | year = 1993 | title = Amphetamine enhances human-memory consolidation | url =https://dipot.ulb.ac.be/dspace/bitstream/2013/168787/1/Elsevier_152417.pdf | journal = Neuroscience Letters| volume = 161 | issue = 1| pages = 9–12 | doi=10.1016/0304-3940(93)90127-7| pmid = 8255556 | s2cid = 24297641 }}</ref> However, the effect of prolonged use of stimulants on cognitive functioning is very different from the impact on one-time users. Some researchers have found stimulant use to lower recall rates in humans after prolonged usage{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}}. The axons, dendrites, and neurons wear out in many cases{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}}. Current research illustrates a paradoxical effect{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}}. The few exceptions undergo mental hypertrophy{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}}. [[Methylenedioxymethamphetamine]] (MDMA) users are found to exhibit difficulties encoding information into long-term memory, display impaired verbal learning, are more easily distracted, and are less efficient at focusing attention on complex tasks. The degree of executive impairment increases with the severity of use, and the impairments are relatively long-lasting. Chronic cocaine users display impaired attention, learning, memory, reaction time and cognitive flexibility.<ref name="Lundqvist"/> Whether or not stimulants have a positive or negative effect on recall depends on how much is used and for how long.

===Gender===
Consistently, females perform better than males on episodic memory tasks including delayed recall and recognition. However, males and females do not differ on working, immediate and semantic memory tasks. Neuro-psychological observations suggest that, in general, previous injuries cause greater deficits in females than in males. It has been proposed that the [[sex differences in memory|gender differences in memory performance]] reflect underlying differences in the strategies used to process information, rather than anatomical differences. However, gender differences in cerebral asymmetry received support from morphometric studies showing a greater leftward asymmetry in males than in females, meaning that men and women use each side of their brain to a different extent.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Guillem | first1 = F. | last2 = Mograss | first2 = M. | year = 2005 | title = Gender differences in memory processing: Evidence from event-related potentials to faces | journal = Brain and Cognition | volume = 57 | issue = 1| pages = 84–92 | doi=10.1016/j.bandc.2004.08.026| pmid = 15629219 | s2cid = 2529989 }}</ref> There is also evidence for a negative recall bias in women, which means females in general are more likely than males to recall their mistakes.<ref>Beyer, S. (1998) Gender Differences in Self-Perception and Negative Recall Biases. Sex Roles, pp.103.133</ref> In an eyewitness study by Dan Yarmey in 1991, he found that women were significantly more accurate than men in accuracy of recall for weight of suspects.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yarmey | first1 = D | year = 1991 | title = Adult, age and gender differences in eyewitness recall in field settings | journal = Journal of Applied Social Psychology | volume = 23 | issue = 23| pages = 1921–1932 | doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.1993.tb01073.x}}</ref>

Studies have tested the difference between what men and women can recall after a presentation. Three speakers were involved, one being female and two being male. Men and women were put into the same lecture hall and had the same speaker talk to them. The results suggested that information presented by the women speaker was more easily recalled by all the members of the study.<ref name="Yang, H. 2013">{{cite journal | last1 = Yang | first1 = H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = S. | last3 = Park | first3 = G. | year = 2013 | title = Her Voice Lingers on and Her Memory Is Strategic: Effects of Gender on Directed Forgetting | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 5| pages = 1–9 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0064030 | pmid=23691141 | pmc=3655030| bibcode = 2013PLoSO...864030Y | doi-access = free }}</ref> Researchers believe this to be a significant difference between genders because women's voices have better acoustics, ranging from low tones to high tones.<ref name="Yang, H. 2013"/> Since their voices have this range, semantic encoding is increased for the pitches that stimulate the auditory component of the brain;<ref name="Yang, H. 2013"/> this resonates better in the ear function. Since pitch ranges from low tones to high tones, it draws people's attention to the words attributed with the tone. As the tone changes, words stand out and from these differences memories can be stored.<ref name="Yang, H. 2013"/> Recall is made easier since the association the brain can make is between words and sounds spoken.

A distinguishing feature is how males and females process information and then recall what was presented to them. Females tend to remember nonverbal cues and associate the meaning of a discussion with gestures.<ref name="Yang, H. 2013"/> Since males follow verbal cues they react more to the facts and actual words within a discussion to recall what was said, but fluctuations in the speaker's voice helps them maintain the memories.<ref name="Yang, H. 2013"/> Another difference that sets males and females apart is recalling someone's voice.<ref name="Yang, H. 2013"/> They tend to recall information they have read, for instance, lists of objects are better recalled for men than women.<ref name="Yang, H. 2013"/> The only similarity they have is that when emotional words are used or an emotional tone is produced, males and females tend to recall those changes.<ref name="Yang, H. 2013"/>

===Food consumption===
{{primary sources|section|date=April 2013}}
There has been much research on whether eating prior to a cognitive recall test can affect cognitive functioning. One example was a study of the effect of breakfast timing on selected cognitive functions of elementary school students. Their results found that children who ate breakfast at school scored notably higher on most of the cognitive tests than did students who ate breakfast at home and also children who did not eat breakfast at all.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Vaisman | first1 = N. | last2 = Voet | first2 = H. | last3 = Akivis | first3 = A. | last4 = Vakil | first4 = E. | year = 1996 | title = Effect of Breakfast Timing on the Cognitive Functions of Elementary School Students | journal = Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine | volume = 150 | issue = 10| pages = 1089–1092 | doi = 10.1001/archpedi.1996.02170350091016 | pmid = 8859144 }}</ref>

In a study of women experiencing Premenstrual Syndrome, they were either given a placebo beverage or a carbohydrate-rich one. The patients were tested at home; their moods, cognitive performance, and food craving were measured before the consumption of the beverage and 30, 90, and 180 minutes after consumption. The results showed that the carbohydrate-rich beverage significantly decreased self-reported depression, anger, confusion, and carbohydrate craving 90 to 180 minutes after consumption. Memory word recognition also improved significantly.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sayegh | first1 = R. | last2 = Schiff | first2 = I. | last3 = Wurtman | first3 = J. | last4 = Spiers | first4 = P. | last5 = McDermott | first5 = J. | last6 = Wurtman | first6 = R. | year = 1995 | title = The Effect of a Carbohydrate-Rich Beverage on Mood, Appetite, and Cognitive Function in Women with Premenstrual Syndrome | journal = Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 86 | issue = 4| pages = 520–528 | doi=10.1016/0029-7844(95)00246-n| pmid = 7675373 }}</ref>

===Physical activity===
{{primary sources|section|date=November 2013}}
Studies have indicated that children who are inactive have poor health, but they also have poor cognitive health also. With low fitness there is a relationship to decreased cognitive functioning; for instance there are different types of cognitive problems like perception, memory, cognitive control, and there is lower academic achievement.<ref name="Raine, L. B. 2013">{{cite journal | last1 = Raine | first1 = L. B. | last2 = Lee | first2 = H. | last3 = Saliba | first3 = B. J. | last4 = Chaddock-Heyman | first4 = L. | last5 = Hillman | first5 = C. H. | last6 = Kramer | first6 = A. F. | year = 2013 | title = The Influence of Childhood Aerobic Fitness on Learning and Memory | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 9| pages = 1–6 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0072666 | pmid = 24039791 | pmc = 3770671 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...872666R | doi-access = free }}</ref> Many tests have been conducted to identify what exactly is the reduction when children do not have physical activity. One test selected children to be in two different groups, one group was physically active the other group was not. After a while of monitoring the children the researchers tested the children in learning and recall memory to see what they were retaining and to observe the difference if available of low physical activity versus high physical activity.<ref name="Raine, L. B. 2013"/> The results came back indicating that the children without physical activity have a later recall process than the children with physical activity. The learning part of the experiment was equally distributed on both spectrums for each group, but recall memory was the only variable that did not match both of the groups.<ref name="Raine, L. B. 2013"/> 
Physical activity has a significant influence on the hippocampus, since this is the part of the brain that is responsible for encoding information into memory.<ref name="Raine, L. B. 2013"/> With physical activity having such an impact on the hippocampus this can regulate other parts of the body as well like weight, memory, daily function, and many more processes that are necessary for the body to work. Since physical activity impacts all of these important parts of the brain, this form of exercise keeps the neural networks functioning well. Neural networks allow information to process and pass to the hippocampus in order to retain memory.<ref name="Raine, L. B. 2013"/> This lets the brain be more efficient in processing and more memories are stored this way.

===Trauma and brain exposure===
{{primary sources|section|date=November 2013}}
There is barely any recalled memory in cases of fear and [[traumatic memories|trauma exposure]], brain injury, post-traumatic stress disorder, pain, or anxiety. Recall memory is very limited, since the only memory people with these problems have is the flash backs of what happened when the event took place.<ref name="Seifert, A. 2012">{{cite journal | last1 = Seifert | first1 = A | year = 2012 | title = Absence of verbal recall or memory for symptom acquisition in fear and trauma exposure: A conceptual case for fear conditioning and learned nonuse in assessment and treatment | journal = [[Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development]] | volume = 49 | issue = 8| pages = 1209–1219 | doi = 10.1682/JRRD.2011.11.0214 | pmid = 23341313 | doi-access = free }}</ref> People can only recall the memory that happened on that day when they hear or see something that brings the memory into existence. They cannot recall how they felt or what they saw, but through images or audio people can recall that tragic event.<ref name="Seifert, A. 2012"/> For example, the day of September 11, 2001, first responders remember the day and what it was like; but the feelings they could not recall. The only way to recall the feelings they had were when sirens of police vehicles, fire trucks, and ambulances drove by their house they feel the exact feelings that were in effect on that day. 
Recall memory is active when a familiar sound triggers a feeling of pain from a past event, but most of the recall is shut out from traumatic event.<ref name="Seifert, A. 2012"/> It is similar to classical conditioning, when a dog hears a bell it begins to react to the noise rather than an exterior variable like food or an electric shock. The use of therapy is constructed for a person with this problem to help avoid the fear associated with sounds or objects, and be able to then recall other pieces of information that happened during the event.<ref name="Seifert, A. 2012"/>