Editing Religious art (section)

==Islamic  art==
{{main|Islamic art}}
[[File:Mihrab, Great Mosque of Kairouan.jpg|thumb|right|A specimen of Islamic sacred art: in the [[Great Mosque of Kairouan]] in [[Tunisia]], the upper part of the ''mihrab'' (prayer niche) is decorated with 9th-century lusterware tiles and painted intertwined vegetal motifs.]]

A prohibition against depicting representational images in religious art, as well as the naturally decorative nature of Arabic script, led to the use of calligraphic decorations, which usually involved repeating geometrical patterns and vegetal forms ([[arabesque]]s) that expressed ideals of order and nature. These were used on religious architecture, carpets, and handwritten documents.<ref name="huntfor">{{cite web|title=Islamic Art – Islamic Art of Calligraphy and Arabesque|url=http://www.huntfor.com/arthistory/medieval/islamic.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040218232141/http://www.huntfor.com/arthistory/medieval/islamic.htm|archive-date=2004-02-18|access-date=2014-02-11}}</ref> Islamic art has reflected this balanced, harmonious world-view. It focuses on spiritual essence rather than physical form.

While there has been an aversion to potential idol worship through Islamic history, this is a distinctly modern [[Sunni]] view. [[Persian miniature]]s, along with medieval [[depictions of Muhammad]] and [[angels in Islam]], stand as prominent examples contrary to the modern Sunni tradition. Also, [[Shi'a]] Muslims are much less averse to the depiction of figures, including the Prophet's as long as the depiction is respectful.

===Figure representation===
The Islamic resistance to the representation of living beings ultimately stems from the belief that the creation of living forms is unique to God. It is for this reason that the role of images and image makers has been controversial.

The strongest statements on the subject of figural depiction are made in the [[Hadith]] (Traditions of the Prophet), where painters are challenged to "breathe life" into their creations and threatened with punishment on the Day of Judgment. 
[[File:Ardabil Carpet.jpg|thumb|The [[Ardabil Carpet]], a [[Persian carpet]], [[Tabriz]], mid-16th century, depicts floral gardens shaped in a manner that reflects the Islamic symbolism of paradise.]]
The Qur'an is less specific but condemns idolatry and uses the Arabic term musawwir ("maker of forms", or artist) as an epithet for God. Partially as a result of this religious sentiment, figures in painting were often stylized and, in some cases, the destruction of figurative artworks occurred. [[Iconoclasm]] was previously known in the Byzantine period and aniconicism was a feature of the Judaic world, thus placing the Islamic objection to figurative representations within a larger context. As ornament, however, figures were largely devoid of any larger significance and perhaps therefore posed less challenge.<ref>{{cite web|title=Figural Representation in Islamic Art &#124; Thematic Essay &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/figs/hd_figs.htm|access-date=2013-09-06|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref>
As with other forms of Islamic ornamentation, artists freely adapted and stylized basic human and animal forms, giving rise to a great variety of figural-based designs.

===Arabesque===
{{main|Arabesque}}

Arabesque is a decorative art style characterized by repetitive, intricate patterns of intertwined plants and abstract curvilinear motifs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Arabesque {{!}} decorative style {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/arabesque-decorative-style |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> 
It is believed to have originated in the Islamic world, and its use spread throughout the Middle East, Europe, and North Africa. It has played an important role in Islamic art, often serving as a form of religious expression. The term "arabesque" is a French term derived from the Italian word arabesco, meaning "in the Arabic style" <ref>{{cite web |title=Arabesque {{!}} Definition of Arabesque by Lexico |url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/arabesque |date=22 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122225637/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/arabesque |archive-date=2019-11-22 }}</ref>
Arabesque patterns can be found in various media, including ceramics, architecture, calligraphy, and textiles. Since the 19th century, Arabesque art has been highly influential in Western art and design, with many designers and artists incorporating patterns into their work.

===Calligraphy===
{{main|Islamic calligraphy}}

Calligraphy is a highly regarded element of Islamic art. The [[Qur'an]] was transmitted in Arabic, and inherent within the Arabic script is the potential for ornamental forms. The employment of calligraphy as ornament had a definite aesthetic appeal but often also included an underlying [[talisman]]ic component. While most works of art had legible inscriptions, not all Muslims would have been able to read them. One should always keep in mind, however, that calligraphy is principally a means to transmit a text, albeit in a decorative form.<ref>{{cite web|title=Calligraphy in Islamic Art &#124; Thematic Essay &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cali/hd_cali.htm|access-date=2013-09-06|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref>
From its simple and primitive early examples of the 5th and 6th century AD, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly after the rise of Islam in the 7th century into a beautiful form of art. The main two families of calligraphic styles were the dry styles, called generally the [[Kufic]], and the soft cursive styles, which include [[Naskh (script)|Naskhi]], [[Thuluth]], [[Nastaliq]] and [[Islamic calligraphy|many others]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Art of Arabic Calligraphy|url=http://www.sakkal.com/ArtArabicCalligraphy.html|access-date=2013-09-06|publisher=Sakkal}}</ref>

===Geometry===
{{main|Islamic geometric patterns}}
Geometric patterns make up one of the three non-figural types of decoration in Islamic art.<ref name="Sam Amara">{{cite web |last1=Henry |first1=Richard |title=Language of Symmetry in Islamic Art |url=https://artofislamicpattern.com/resources/educational-posters/ |website=artofislamicpattern.com |publisher=Sam Amara |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> Whether isolated or used in combination with non-figural ornamentation or figural representation, geometric patterns are popularly associated with Islamic art, largely due to their aniconic quality.<ref name="Sam Amara"/> These abstract designs not only adorn the surfaces of monumental Islamic architecture but also function as the major decorative element on a vast array of objects of all types.<ref>{{cite web|title=Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art &#124; Thematic Essay &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History &#124; The Metropolitan Museum of Art|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/geom/hd_geom.htm|access-date=2013-09-06|publisher=Metmuseum.org}}</ref>

'''Types Of Geometric Styles'''
 
[[Pattern|Geometric patterns]] are frequently associated with Islamic art, partly because of their iconic appeal, whether used alone or in conjunction with figural depiction or non-configurable adornment.<ref name="Jonathon Goldmann">{{cite web |last1=Morrison |first1=Geoffrey |title=Exploring The Alhambra Palace And Fortress In Granada, Spain |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/geoffreymorrison/2015/10/15/exploring-the-alhambra-palace-granada-spain/?sh=748419b948f1 |website=www.forbes.com/sites/geoffreymorrison |publisher=Jonathon Goldmann |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> These [https://classroom.synonym.com/what-do-patterns-mean-in-islamic-architecture-12087246.html abstract patterns] are used as the primary ornamental feature on various items of all kinds, in addition to adorning the surfaces of massive Islamic buildings.<ref name="Jonathon Goldmann"/> Although geometric ornamentation may have peaked in the Islamic world, the Greeks, Romans and Sasanians in Iran were the sources for geometric shapes and elaborate patterns.<ref name="Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art">{{cite web |last1=Corbin |first1=Margaret |title=Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/geom/hd_geom.htm |website=www.metmuseum.org |publisher=David Nick |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> [https://www.ifdcouncil.org/5-of-the-most-awe-inspiring-islamic-artists/ Islamic artists] incorporated significant components of the classical past to invent a new form of decoration that highlighted the vitality of order and unity. Islamic astronomers, mathematicians and scientists contributed these forms, which were crucial for their type of art style.<ref name="Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art"/>

'''History And Design'''

Geometric shapes resemble the arabesque design found in many vegetal designs in terms of its abstraction, repeated motifs and symmetry. Geometric designs frequently coexist with [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphic]] decoration.<ref name="Nimira Dewji">{{cite web |last1=Dewji |first1=Nimira |title=Geometric patterns in Islamic art emphasised unity and order |url=https://ismailimail.blog/2016/07/08/geometric-patterns-in-islamic-art-emphasised-unity-and-order/ |website=ISMAILIMAIL |date=8 July 2016 |publisher=Nimira Dewji |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> Circles and interlaced circles, squares or four-sided polygons are the typical star pattern resulting from squares and triangles inscribed in a circle.<ref name="Nimira Dewji"/> Multi-sided polygons are the four fundamental shapes or “repeat units” from which the more complex patterns are built.<ref name="Nimira Dewji"/> It is evident, however, that the intricate designs found on several things come in various sizes and configurations, making them suitable for inclusion more than category.

The geometric shape of the circle is used in Islamic art to signify the fundamental symbol of oneness and the ultimate course of all diversity in creation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dewji |first1=Nimira |title=Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/geom/hd_geom.htm |website=ISMAILIMAIL |publisher=David Nick |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> As the illustration below shows, many classic Islamic patterns have ritual beginnings in the circle's raw partition into regular sections.

Four circle divisions resulted in the above pattern, created in [[Yazd|Yazd, Iran]], in the fifteenth century.<ref name="artofislamicpattern.com">{{cite web |last1=Henry |first1=Richard |title=Language of Symmetry in Islamic Art |url=https://artofislamicpattern.com/resources/educational-posters/ |website=The Art of Islamic Pattern |publisher=Sam Amara |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> From there, a regular grid of triangles is created, and then the design is added on top of it. See how the intricate pattern intertwines with the fundamental design, shown in the images above as a white outline.<ref name="artofislamicpattern.com"/>

'''Alhambra Palace Geometry'''

Geometric patterns, biomorphic design [https://www.britannica.com/art/arabesque-decorative-style (arabesque)] and calligraphy are expertly combined in the Alhambra in Spain from the 14th century.<ref name="artofislamicpattern.com"/> Islamic art is made up of these three separate but complementary fields. They are arranged in a three-tiered hierarchy, with geometry at the button.<ref name="artofislamicpattern.com"/> This is frequently indicated by its use on the lower portions of walls or floors, as in the example above.

The decorative features used use a variety of symmetries that are now recognized as belonging to separate mathematical groups, yet the patterns’ delicacy and elegance are unmatched in contemporary mathematical thought.<ref name="Anna Yang">{{cite web |last1=Aba |first1=Ali |title=The Stunning Beauty of Islamic Geometric Pattern |url=https://medium.com/however-mathematics/the-stunning-beauty-of-islamic-geometric-patterns-4fb57ed5644a |website=Medium |date=3 November 2022 |publisher=Anna Yang |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> Although it was once customary in Islam to use geometric shapes, these designs are works of architecture.<ref name="Anna Yang"/> Since the eighth century, [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cali/hd_cali.htm Muslim calligraphers] and geometric pattern designers have decorated mosques, castles and manuscripts.<ref name="Anna Yang"/> Most often, Islamic geometric designs are employed in places of worship as a way to exalt [[God in Islam|God.]] Grand structures made by divine geometry include buildings, gardens and floors.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Aba |first1=Ali |title=Exploring The Alhambra Palace And Fortress In Granada, Spain |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/geoffreymorrison/2015/10/15/exploring-the-alhambra-palace-granada-spain/?sh=748419b948f1 |website=Medium |publisher=Anna Yang |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref>
'''The Blue Mosque Geometry'''

There are observable patterns spanning a thousand years of Islamic history and throughout the entire Islamic world since these geometric patterns are also connected to [https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/islamic-culture#:~:text=The%20term%20%E2%80%9CIslamic%20culture%E2%80%9D%20embraces,at%20any%20point%20in%20time. Islamic culture].<ref name="Anna Yang"/> In some pieces of architecture, Islamic architects follow the same guidelines, such as in the [[Blue Mosque, Istanbul|Blue Mosque]] and the [[Alhambra]] in Granada pictured above. The Alhambra palace in Spain and the Samarkand mosque in Uzbekistan are just two examples of the art of repeated geometric designs that can be seen worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Aba |first1=Ali |title=Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art |url=https://ismailimail.blog/2016/07/08/geometric-patterns-in-islamic-art-emphasised-unity-and-order/ |website=www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/geom/hd_geom.htm |date=8 July 2016 |publisher=Anna Yang |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref>