Editing Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (section)

===<small>SAGE Communication Systems</small>===
{{External media
|image1=[http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/File:Sage_nomination.jpg XD-1 consoles]
|image2=[http://cdn.theatlantic.com/static/mt/assets/science/assets_c/2013/01/sage_situation-thumb-615x672-111531.jpg Situation Display with SAM sites] 
|image6=[http://cdn.theatlantic.com/static/mt/assets/science/assets_c/2013/01/sage_console-thumb-615x349-111527.jpg operator with light gun]
|image7=[http://cdn.theatlantic.com/static/mt/assets/science/assets_c/2013/01/sage_blockhouse-thumb-615x761-111523.jpg room diagrams for each DC floor]
|image8={{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20071113035819/http://www.456fis.org/Radar_&_Avionics.htm images of a radar scope during a SAGE intercept]}}
}}
The Burroughs 416L SAGE component ([[Electronic Systems Division|ESD]] Project 416L,{{r|Israel}} Semi Automatic Ground Environment System){{r|DelPapa}} was the [[Cold War]] [[System of systems|network connecting IBM supplied computer system at the various DC and]] that created the display and control environment for operation of the separate radars{{r|Israel}} and to provide outbound [[command guidance]] for ground-controlled interception by air defense aircraft in the "SAGE Defense System"<ref name=YouTube1960>{{cite AV media |year=1960 |title=IBM Sage Computer Ad |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iCCL4INQcFo |format=digitized film at YouTube |access-date=2013-02-16 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127200223/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iCCL4INQcFo |archive-date=2013-01-27 }}</ref> ("Air Defense [[Weapons System]]").<ref name=IBM1959B>{{Cite report |publisher=International Business Machines Corporation |year=1959 |title=The SAGE/Bomarc Air Defense Weapons System: An Illustrated Explanation of What it is and How it Works |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFdIGwAACAAJ |format=fact sheet |location=New York|quote=BOMARC…Crew training was activated January 1, 1958. … The operator requests an "engagement prediction point" from the IBM computer. …missile guidance information is relayed via leased lines to Cape Canaveral, and via radio to the BOMARC missile.}} [http://bitsavers.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/pdf/ibm/sage/SAGE_BOMARC_Defense_System_1958.pdf Alt URL] (cited by Volume I p. 257)</ref> [[Burroughs Corporation]] was a prime contractor for SAGE network interface equipment which included 134 [[Burroughs AN/FST-2 Coordinate Data Transmitting Set]]s (CDTS) at radar stations and other sites, the IBM supplied [[AN/FSQ-7 Combat Direction Central|AN/FSQ-7]] at 23 Direction Centers, and the [[AN/FSQ-8 Combat Control Central|AN/FSQ-8 Combat Control Computers]] at 8 Combat Centers. The 2 computers of each AN/FSQ-7 together weighing {{Convert|275|STf|abbr=on}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Colon |first=Raul |title=Early Development of the United States Defensive Missile System |url=http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/military/us_missile.htm |journal=[[Aeroflight]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106042708/http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/military/us_missile.htm |archive-date=2007-11-06 }}</ref>{{quote without source|reason=A quotation is needed to confirm that Colon gives the weight for the 2 computers instead of the entire AN/FSQ-7, or all the equip (including non-FSQ units) in the DC|date=April 2013}} used about ⅓ of the DC's 2nd floor space{{r|EdwardsBenj}} and at ~$50 per instruction had approximately 125,000 "computer instructions support[ing] actual operational air-defense mission" processing.<ref>{{Cite report |last=Benington |first=Herbert D |url=http://csse.usc.edu/csse/TECHRPTS/1983/usccse83-501/usccse83-501.pdf |access-date=February 18, 2015 |title=Production of Large Computer Programs |type=adaptation of June 1956 presentation |quote=The following paper is a description of the organization and techniques we used at MIT's Lincoln Laboratory in the mid-1950s to produce programs for the SAGE air-defense system. The paper appeared a year before the announcement of SAGE; no mention was made of the specific application other than to indicate that the program was used in a large control system. The programming effort was very large—eventually, close to half a million computer instructions. About one-quarter of these instructions supported actual operational air-defense missions. …  In a letter to me on April 23, 1981 … A Lincoln Utility System of service routines containing 40,000 instructions has been prepared … the experience of the Lincoln Laboratory that a system of service programs equal in size to the main system program must be maintained to support preparation, testing, and maintenance of the latter. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150121174748/http://csse.usc.edu/csse/TECHRPTS/1983/usccse83-501/usccse83-501.pdf |archive-date=January 21, 2015 }}</ref>  The AN/FSQ-7 at [[Luke Air Force Base|Luke AFB]] had additional memory (32K total) and was used as a "computer center for all other" DCs.<ref>{{cite web |last=Murphy |first=Michael F. |title=AN/FSQ7 SAGE Computer: Luke AFB |url=http://www.radomes.org/museum/equip/fsq-7.html |format=personal notes |publisher=Radomes.org |access-date=2012-04-02 |quote=Luke center was unique [as] the programming center for all other sage sites [and] had more core memory, 32K total |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322033104/http://www.radomes.org/museum/equip/fsq-7.html |archive-date=2012-03-22 }}</ref> Project 416L was the USAF predecessor of NORAD, SAC, and other military organizations' "Big L" computer systems (e.g., 438L [[Air Force Intelligence Data Handling System]] & 496L [[Space Detection and Tracking System]]).<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America |via=[[Internet Archive]] |publisher=MIT Press |url=https://archive.org/details/closedworldcompu00edwa|url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/closedworldcompu00edwa/page/107 107] |quote=SAGE—Air Force project 416L—became the pattern for at least twenty-five other major military command-control systems… These were the so-called "Big L" systems [and] included 425L, the NORAD system; 438L, the Air Force Intelligence Data Handling System; and 474L, the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS). … Project 465L, the [[SAC Control System]] (SACCS) [with] over a million lines, reached four times the size of the SAGE code and consumed 1,400 man-years of programming; SDC invented a major computer language, [[JOVIAL]], specifically for this project. |isbn=9780262550284 |last1=Edwards |first1=Paul N |year=1997}}</ref>

Network communications:  {{distinguish|text=[[Worldwide Military Command and Control System|the 1958 "Alert Network Number 1" for NORAD to warn other commands (e.g., "flush" SAC bombers)]]}}  The SAGE network of computers connected by a "Digital Radar Relay"{{r|Edwards1996}} (SAGE data system)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Enticknap |first1=R. G. |last2=Schuster |first2=E. F. |year=1958 |title=SAGE Data System Considerations |journal=AIEE Transactions |volume=77 |issue=pt I |pages=824–32 |doi=10.1109/tce.1959.6372899 |s2cid=51659466 }}</ref> used AT&T voice lines, microwave towers, switching centers (e.g., SAGE [[NNX]] 764 was at [[Delta, Utah]]<ref name=Tim>{{cite web |author={{Who|reason=The surname of this author needs specified.|date=February 2013}}, Tim |date=Sep 21, 2007 |title=Re: Speaking of AUTOVON |url=http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/coldwarcomms/message/12368 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130412054503/http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/coldwarcomms/message/12368 |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 12, 2013 |format=personal notes |publisher=Yahoo.com (coldwarcomms newsgroup) |access-date=2013-02-18 |quote=A previously referenced AT&T training manual on SAGE/BUIC/AUTOVON phone systems does list all the AUTOVON/SAGE Switching Centers & includes their General Purpose (AUTOVON) NNX, their SAGE NNX, and … For example, [[Delta, Utah]] had 890 for AUTOVON, 764 for SAGE}}</ref>  & 759 at [[Mounds, Oklahoma]]<ref name=message9092>[https://archive.today/20130412051918/http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/coldwarcomms/message/9092 Yahoo! Groups]. Dir.groups.yahoo.com. Retrieved on 2013-09-18.</ref>), etc.; and AT&T's "main underground station" was in Kansas (Fairview) with other bunkers in Connecticut (Cheshire), California (Santa Rosa), Iowa (Boone)<ref>{{cite journal |title=CONUS AUTOVON Switching Centers |quote=CO Cheyenne Mountain 1 July 1966…underground (inside mountain) … CO Lamar 1 Jan. 1967 }}</ref> and Maryland ([[Hearthstone Mountain]]).  CDTS [[modem]]s at automated radar stations transmitted range and azimuth,<ref name=FYQ47>{{cite web |title=AN/FYQ-47 Radar Data Processing System |url=http://www.radomes.org/museum/equip/radarequip.php?link=fyq-47.html |publisher=Radomes.org |access-date=2013-02-21 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325045206/http://www.radomes.org/museum/equip/radarequip.php?link=fyq-47.html |archive-date=2012-03-25 }}</ref> and the [[Air Movements Identification Service]] (AMIS) provided air traffic data to the SAGE System.<ref name=Williamson>{{cite web |title=AN/FST-2, RADAR Data Processor/Network System: Gallery |url=http://www.williamson-labs.com/480_cpu22.htm |quote=Air Movements Identification Service (AMIS)  AMIS is responsible for sending [Air Route Traffic Control Center] data on flight plans, weapons status, weather, and aircraft tracks to the Direction and Combat Centers over teletype and voice grade telephone circuits. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123054630/http://www.williamson-labs.com/480_cpu22.htm |archive-date=2013-01-23 }}</ref>  Radar tracks by telephone calls (e.g., from Manual Control Centers in the [[Albuquerque Air Defense Sector|Albuquerque]], [[Minot Air Defense Sector|Minot]], and [[Oklahoma City Air Defense Sector|Oklahoma City]] sectors) could be entered via consoles of the 4th floor "Manual Inputs" room adjacent to the "Communication Recording-Monitoring and VHF" room.<ref>{{Cite journal |publisher=publisher tbd |title=[floor-by-floor diagram of SAGE DC<nowiki>]</nowiki> |url=http://cdn.theatlantic.com/static/mt/assets/science/sage_blockhouse.jpg |type=copy of military diagram in "''[[the Atlantic]]''" |access-date=2013-02-16 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218005343/http://cdn.theatlantic.com/static/mt/assets/science/sage_blockhouse.jpg |archive-date=2013-02-18 }}</ref>  In 1966, SAGE communications were integrated into the [[AUTOVON]] Network.{{r|message9092}}

'''SAGE Sector Warning Networks''' ([[cf.]] NORAD Division Warning Networks) provided the radar netting communications for each DC{{r|NORAD1958B}} and eventually also allowed transfer of [[command guidance]] to autopilots of TDDL-equipped interceptors for vectoring to targets<ref name=Johnson>compiled by {{Cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Mildred W |date=31 December 1980 |orig-year=February 1973 original by Cornett, Lloyd H. Jr |title=A Handbook of Aerospace Defense Organization 1946–1980 |url=http://www.usafpatches.com/pubs/handbookofadcorg.pdf |publisher=Office of History, [[Aerospace Defense Center]] |location=[[Peterson Air Force Base]] |page={{Verify source|date=April 2012}} |access-date=2012-03-26 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061123115752/http://www.usafpatches.com/pubs/handbookofadcorg.pdf |archive-date=23 November 2006 }}</ref> via the '''Ground to Air Data Link Subsystem''' and the [[Ground Air Transmit Receive]] (GATR) network of radio sites for "HF/VHF/UHF voice & TDDL"{{r|Tim}} each generally co-located at a CDTS site.  SAGE Direction Centers and Combat Centers were also nodes of NORAD's Alert Network Number 1, and SAC [[Emergency War Order]] Traffic{{r|NORAD1959B}} included "Positive Control/Noah's Ark instructions" through northern NORAD radio sites to confirm or recall SAC bombers if "SAC decided to launch the alert force before receiving an execution order from the JCS".{{r|NORAD1958B}}

A SAGE System [[ergonomic]] test at [[Luke Air Force Base|Luke AFB]] in 1964 "''showed conclusively that the wrong timing of human and technical operations was leading to frequent truncation of the flight path tracking system''" (Harold Sackman).<ref name=Hellige/>{{Rp|9}}  SAGE software development was "grossly underestimated"{{r|RedmondSmith}}{{rp|370}} (60,000 lines in September 1955):<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3HgQp6f9yGQC&pg=PA158|title=The United States Air Force and the culture of innovation 1945–1965|page= 158|publisher=DIANE |isbn=978-1-4289-9027-2}}</ref>  "the biggest mistake [of] the SAGE computer program was [underestimating the] jump from the 35,000 [[Whirlwind I|[WWI]]] instructions … to the more than 100,000 instructions on the" AN/FSQ-8.<ref>{{Cite report |last=Benington |first=Herbert D. |title=Foreword: Production of Large Computer Programs |url=http://csse.usc.edu/csse/TECHRPTS/1983/usccse83-501/usccse83-501.pdf |access-date=February 18, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150121174748/http://csse.usc.edu/csse/TECHRPTS/1983/usccse83-501/usccse83-501.pdf |archive-date=January 21, 2015 }} (Foreword is part of pdf that includes "[[preface|Editor's Note]]" and a transcript of Benington's 1956 symposium paper beginning with the '''Introduction'''—"This paper looks ahead at some programming problems that are likely to arise during Forrester's 1960–1965 period of real-time control applications."—through '''Summary''': "The techniques that have been developed for automatic programming over the past five years have mostly aimed at simplifying the part of programming that, at first glance, seems toughest—program input, or conversion from programmer language to machine code.")</ref>  NORAD conducted a ''Sage/Missile Master Integration/ECM-ECCM Test'' in 1963,<ref>{{Cite report |publisher=North America Air Defense Command |title=Phase III: Sage/Missile Master Integration/ECM-ECCM Test (Deep River) |location=Ent AFB, Colorado |year=1963}}</ref> and although SAGE used [[Air Movements Identification Service|AMIS]] input of air traffic information, the 1959 plan developed by the July 1958 USAF [[Air Defense Systems Integration Division]]{{r|NORAD1958B}} for [[SAGE Air Traffic Integration]] (SATIN) was cancelled by the DoD.<ref>Missile Master Plan [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1755&dat=19590612&id=tbkcAAAAIBAJ&sjid=DmUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7467,1893666] [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HzY_AAAAIBAJ&sjid=7VAMAAAAIBAJ&pg=3193,5546728&dq=missile-master-plan&hl=en];  identified by Schaffel p. 260: "…the Defense Department to issue, on June 19, 1959, the {{sic|[[Continental Air Defense Program|Master Air Defense Plan]].}}  Key features of the plan included a reduction in BOMARC squadrons, cancellation of plans to upgrade the interceptor force, and a new austere SAGE program.  In addition, funds were deleted for gap-filler and frequency-agility radars.<sup>21 [''1959 NORAD/CONAD Hist Summary: Jan–Jun]''</sup>''"''</ref>