Editing Semitic languages (section)

==Grammar==
The Semitic languages share a number of grammatical features, although variation — both between separate languages, and within the languages themselves — has naturally occurred over time.

===Word order===
The reconstructed default word order in Proto-Semitic is [[verb–subject–object]] (VSO), possessed–possessor (NG), and noun–adjective (NA). This was still the case in [[Classical Arabic]] and [[Biblical Hebrew]], e.g. Classical Arabic رأى محمد فريدا ''ra'ā muħammadun farīdan''. (literally "saw Muhammad Farid", ''Muhammad saw Farid''). In the modern [[Varieties of Arabic|Arabic vernaculars]], however, as well as sometimes in [[Modern Standard Arabic]] (the modern literary language based on Classical Arabic) and [[Modern Hebrew]], the classical VSO order has given way to SVO. Modern Ethiopian Semitic languages follow a different word order: SOV, possessor–possessed, and adjective–noun; however, the oldest attested Ethiopian Semitic language, Geʽez, was VSO, possessed–possessor, and noun–adjective.{{sfn|Greenberg|1999|p=157}} Akkadian was also predominantly SOV.

===Cases in nouns and adjectives===
The proto-Semitic three-case system ([[nominative case|nominative]], [[Accusative case|accusative]] and [[genitive case|genitive]]) with differing vowel endings (-u, -a -i), fully preserved in Qur'anic Arabic (see [[ʾIʿrab]]), Akkadian and [[Ugaritic language|Ugaritic]], has disappeared everywhere in the many colloquial forms of Semitic languages. Modern Standard Arabic maintains such case distinctions, although they are typically lost in free speech due to colloquial influence. An accusative ending ''-n'' is preserved in Ethiopian Semitic.{{NoteTag|"In the historically attested Semitic languages, the endings of the singular noun-flexions survive, as is well known, only partially: in Akkadian and Arabic and Ugaritic and, limited to the accusative, in Ethiopic."{{sfn|Moscati|1958|pp=142–43}}}} In the northwest, the scarcely attested [[Samalian language|Samalian]] reflects a case distinction in the plural between nominative ''-ū'' and oblique ''-ī'' (compare the same distinction in Classical Arabic).{{sfn|Hetzron|1997|p=123}} Additionally, Semitic nouns and adjectives had a category of state, the indefinite state being expressed by [[nunation]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Semitic-languages|title=Semitic languages {{!}} Definition, Map, Tree, Distribution, & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-01-23|archive-date=25 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425075122/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Semitic-languages|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Number in nouns===
Semitic languages originally had three [[grammatical number]]s: singular, [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]], and [[plural]]. Classical Arabic still has a mandatory dual (i.e. it must be used in all circumstances when referring to two entities), marked on nouns, verbs, adjectives and pronouns. Many contemporary dialects of Arabic still have a dual, as in the name for the nation of Bahrain (''baħr'' "sea" + ''-ayn'' "two"), although it is marked only on nouns. It also occurs in Hebrew in a few nouns (''šana'' means "one year", ''šnatayim'' means "two years", and ''šanim'' means "years"), but for those it is obligatory. The curious phenomenon of [[broken plural]]s{{snd}}e.g. in Arabic, ''sadd'' "one dam" vs. ''sudūd'' "dams"{{snd}}found most profusely in the languages of Arabia and Ethiopia, may be partly of proto-Semitic origin, and partly elaborated from simpler origins.

===Verb aspect and tense===
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin: 1em;"
|+ Paradigm of a regular Classical Arabic verb:<br />Form I ''{{transliteration|ar|kataba (yaktubu)}}'' "to write"
|-
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Past
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Present<br />[[Indicative]]
|-
! colspan="6" | Singular
|-
! colspan="2"| 1st
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-tu}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْتُ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʼa-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-u}}'''
| {{lang|ar|أَكْتُبُ}}
|-
! rowspan="2"| 2nd
! <small>masculine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-ta}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْتَ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-u}}'''
| {{lang|ar| تَكْتُبُ}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-ti}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْتِ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-īna}}'''
| {{lang|ar|تَكْتُبِينَ}}
|-
! rowspan="2"| 3rd
! <small>masculine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-a}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبَ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ya-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-u}}'''
| {{lang|ar|يَكْتُبُ}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-at}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبَتْ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-u}}'''
| {{lang|ar|تَكْتُبُ}}
|-
! colspan="6" | Dual
|-
! 2nd
! <small>masculine <br>& feminine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-tumā}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْتُمَا}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-āni}}'''
| {{lang|ar|تَكْتُبَانِ}}
|-
! rowspan="2"| 3rd
! <small>masculine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-ā}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبَا}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ya-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-āni}}'''
| {{lang|ar|يَكْتُبَانِ}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-atā}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبَتَا}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-āni}}'''
| {{lang|ar|تَكْتُبَانِ}}
|-
! colspan="6" | Plural
|-
! colspan="2"| 1st
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-nā}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْنَا}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|na-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-u}}'''
| {{lang|ar|نَكْتُبُ}}
|-
! rowspan="2"| 2nd
! <small>masculine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-tum}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْتُمْ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-ūna}}'''
| {{lang|ar|تَكْتُبُونَ}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-tunna}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْتُنَّ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-na}}'''
| {{lang|ar|تَكْتُبْنَ}}
|-
! rowspan="2"| 3rd
! <small>masculine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-ū}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبُوا}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ya-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-ūna}}'''
| {{lang|ar|يَكْتُبُونَ}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-na}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْنَ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ya-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-na}}'''
| {{lang|ar|يَكْتُبْنَ}}
|-
|}

All Semitic languages show two quite distinct styles of morphology used for conjugating verbs. ''Suffix conjugations'' take suffixes indicating the person, number and gender of the subject, which bear some resemblance to the pronominal suffixes used to indicate direct objects on verbs ("I saw '''him'''") and possession on nouns ("'''his''' dog"). So-called ''prefix conjugations'' actually takes both prefixes and suffixes, with the prefixes primarily indicating person (and sometimes number or gender), while the suffixes (which are completely different from those used in the suffix conjugation) indicate number and gender whenever the prefix does not mark this. The prefix conjugation is noted for a particular pattern of ''{{IPA|ʔ- t- y- n-}}'' prefixes where (1) a ''t-'' prefix is used in the singular to mark the second person and third-person feminine, while a ''y-'' prefix marks the third-person masculine; and (2) identical words are used for second-person masculine and third-person feminine singular. The prefix conjugation is extremely old, with clear analogues in nearly all the families of [[Afroasiatic languages]] (i.e. at least 10,000 years old). The table on the right shows examples of the prefix and suffix conjugations in Classical Arabic, which has forms that are close to Proto-Semitic.

In Proto-Semitic, as still largely reflected in East Semitic, prefix conjugations are used both for the past and the non-past, with different vocalizations. Cf. Akkadian ''niprus'' "we decided" (preterite), ''niptaras'' "we have decided" (perfect), ''niparras'' "we decide" (non-past or imperfect), vs. suffix-conjugated ''parsānu'' "we are/were/will be deciding" (stative). Some of these features, e.g. [[gemination]] indicating the non-past/imperfect, are generally attributed to Afroasiatic. Proto-Semitic had an additional form, the [[jussive]], which was distinguished from the preterite only by the position of stress: the jussive had final stress while the preterite had non-final (retracted) stress.{{sfn|Hetzron|Kaye|Zuckermann|2018|p=568}}

The West Semitic languages significantly reshaped the system. The most substantial changes occurred in the [[Central Semitic languages]] (the ancestors of modern Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic). Essentially, the old prefix-conjugated jussive or preterite became a new non-past (or imperfect), while the stative became a new past (or perfect), and the old prefix-conjugated non-past (or imperfect) with gemination was discarded. New suffixes were used to mark different moods in the non-past, e.g. Classical Arabic ''-u'' (indicative), ''-a'' (subjunctive), vs no suffix (jussive). It is not generally agreed whether the systems of the various Semitic languages are better interpreted in terms of tense, i.e. past vs. non-past, or aspect, i.e. perfect vs. imperfect. A special feature in classical Hebrew is the [[waw-consecutive]], prefixing a verb form with the letter [[Waw (letter)|waw]] in order to change its [[grammatical tense|tense]] or [[Lexical aspect|aspect]]. The [[South Semitic languages]] show a system somewhere between the East and Central Semitic languages.

Later languages show further developments. In the modern [[varieties of Arabic]], for example, the old mood suffixes were dropped, and new mood prefixes developed (e.g. ''bi-'' for indicative vs. no prefix for subjunctive in many varieties). In the extreme case of Neo-Aramaic, the verb conjugations have been entirely reworked under Iranian influence.

===Morphology: triliteral roots===
{{Main|Semitic root}}
All Semitic languages exhibit a unique pattern of stems called [[Semitic root]]s consisting typically of triliteral, or three-consonant consonantal roots (two- and four-consonant roots also exist), from which nouns, adjectives, and verbs are formed in various ways (e.g., by inserting vowels, doubling consonants, lengthening vowels or by adding prefixes, suffixes, or [[infix]]es).

For instance, the root [[K-T-B|''k-t-b'']] (dealing with "writing" generally) yields in Arabic:

:'''''k'''a'''t'''a'''b'''tu'' كَتَبْتُ or كتبت "I wrote" (f and m)
:''yu'''kt'''a'''b'''(u)'' يُكْتَب or يكتب "being written" (masculine)
:''tu'''kt'''a'''b'''(u)'' تُكتَب or تكتب "being written" (feminine)
:''yata'''k'''ā'''t'''a'''b'''ūn(a)'' يَتَكَاتَبُونَ or يتكاتبون "they write to each other" (masculine)
:''isti'''kt'''ā'''b''''' اِستِكتاب or استكتاب "causing to write"
:'''''k'''i'''t'''ā'''b''''' كِتَاب or كتاب "book" (the hyphen shows end of stem before various case endings)
:'''''k'''u'''t'''ayyi'''b''''' كُتَيِّب or كتيب "booklet" (diminutive)
:'''''k'''i'''t'''ā'''b'''at'' كِتَابَة or كتابة "writing"
:'''''k'''u'''tt'''ā'''b''''' كُتاب or كتاب "writers" (broken plural)
:'''''k'''a'''t'''a'''b'''at'' كَتَبَة or كتبة "clerks" (broken plural)
:''ma'''kt'''a'''b''''' مَكتَب or مكتب "desk" or "office"
:''ma'''kt'''a'''b'''at'' مَكتَبة or مكتبة "library" or "bookshop"
:''ma'''kt'''ū'''b''''' مَكتوب or مكتوب "written" (participle) or "postal letter" (noun)
:'''''k'''a'''t'''ī'''b'''at'' كَتيبة or كتيبة "squadron" or "document"
:''i'''k'''ti'''t'''ā'''b''''' اِكتِتاب or اكتتاب "registration" or "contribution of funds"
:''mu'''k'''ta'''t'''ib'' مُكتَتِب or مكتتب "subscription"

and the same root in Hebrew:

:'''''k'''ā'''ṯ'''a'''ḇ'''ti'' כתבתי or כָּתַבְתִּי "I wrote"
:'''''k'''a'''tt'''ā'''ḇ''''' כתב or כַּתָּב "reporter" (''m'')
:'''''k'''a'''tt'''e'''ḇ'''eṯ'' כתבת or כַּתָּבֶת "reporter" (''f'')
:'''''k'''a'''tt'''ā'''ḇ'''ā'' כתבה or כַּתָּבָה "article" (plural '''''k'''a'''tt'''ā'''ḇ'''ōṯ'' כתבות)
:''mi'''ḵt'''ā'''ḇ''''' מכתב or מִכְתָּב "postal letter" (plural ''mi'''ḵt'''ā'''ḇ'''īm'' מכתבים)
:''mi'''ḵt'''ā'''ḇ'''ā'' מכתבה "writing desk" (plural ''mi'''ḵt'''ā'''ḇ'''ōṯ'' מכתבות)
:'''''k'''ə'''ṯ'''ō'''ḇ'''eṯ'' כתובת "address" (plural '''''k'''ə'''ṯ'''ō'''ḇ'''ōṯ'' כתובות)
:'''''k'''ə'''ṯ'''ā'''ḇ''''' כתב "handwriting"
:'''''k'''ā'''ṯ'''ū'''ḇ''''' כתוב "written" (''f'' '''''k'''ə'''ṯ'''ū'''ḇ'''ā'' כתובה)
:''hi'''ḵt'''ī'''ḇ''''' הכתיב "he dictated" (''f'' ''hi'''ḵt'''ī'''ḇ'''ā'' הכתיבה)
:''hiṯ'''k'''a'''tt'''ē'''ḇ''''' התכתב "he corresponded (''f'' ''hiṯ'''k'''a'''tt'''ə'''ḇ'''ā'' התכתבה)
:''ni'''ḵt'''a'''ḇ''''' נכתב "it was written" (''m'')
:''ni'''ḵt'''ə'''ḇ'''ā'' נכתבה "it was written" (''f'')
:'''''k'''ə'''ṯ'''ī'''ḇ''''' כתיב "spelling" (''m'')
:''ta'''ḵt'''ī'''ḇ''''' תכתיב "prescript" (''m'')
:''m'''ə''''''ḵ'''u'''tt'''ā'''ḇ''''' מכותב "addressee" (''me'''ḵ'''u'''tt'''e'''ḇ'''eṯ'' מכותבת ''f'')
:'''''k'''ə'''ṯ'''u'''bb'''ā'' כתובה "ketubah (a Jewish marriage contract)" (''f'')

(Underlined consonants {{angbr|ḵ}}, {{angbr|ṯ}}, {{angbr|ḇ}} represent the [[fricative]]s /x/, /θ/, /v/ respectively.)

In Tigrinya and Amharic, this root was used widely but is now seen as an archaic form. Ethiopic-derived languages use different roots for things that have to do with writing (and in some cases counting). The primitive root ''ṣ-f'' and the trilateral root stems ''m-ṣ-f'', ''ṣ-h-f'', and ''ṣ-f-r'' are used. This root also exists in other Semitic languages, such as Hebrew: ''sep̄er'' "book", ''[[sofer|sōp̄er]]'' "scribe", ''mispār'' "number", and ''sippūr'' "story". This root also exists in Arabic and is used to form words with a close meaning to "writing", such as ''ṣaḥāfa'' "journalism", and ''ṣaḥīfa'' "newspaper" or "parchment".
Verbs in other non-Semitic Afroasiatic languages show similar radical patterns, but more usually with biconsonantal roots; e.g. [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]] ''afeg'' means "fly!", while ''affug'' means "flight", and ''yufeg'' means "he flew" (compare with Hebrew, where ''hap̄lēḡ'' means "set sail!", ''hap̄lāḡā'' means "a sailing trip", and ''hip̄līḡ'' means "he sailed", while the unrelated ''ʕūp̄'', ''təʕūp̄ā'', and ''ʕāp̄'' pertain to flight).

===Independent personal pronouns===
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" | English
! rowspan="2" | [[Proto-Semitic]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]
! colspan="2" | [[Arabic language|Arabic]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Geʽez]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Aramaic]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Suret language|Suret]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Maltese language|Maltese]]
|-
! [[Modern Standard Arabic|standard]]
! [[varieties of Arabic|common vernaculars]]
|-
| I
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʔanāku,{{NoteTag|While some believe that *ʔanāku was an innovation in some branches of Semitic utilizing an "intensifying" *-ku, comparison to other Afro-Asiatic 1ps pronouns (e.g. ''3nk'', Coptic ''anak'', ''anok'', [[proto-Berber language|proto-Berber]] *ənakkʷ) suggests that this goes further back.{{sfn|Dolgopolsky|1999|pp=10–11}}}} *ʔaniya}}
| {{transliteration|sem|anāku}}
| أنا {{transliteration|sem|ʔanā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ʔanā}}, anā, {{transliteration|sem|ana, āni, āna, ānig}}
| {{lang|gez|አነ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔana}}
| אנכי, אני {{transliteration|sem|ʔānōḵī, ʔănī}}
| אנא {{transliteration|sem|ʔanā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ānā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|jiena}}, {{transliteration|sem|jien}}
|-
| You (sg., masc.)
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʔanka > *ʔanta}}
| {{transliteration|sem|atta}}
| أنت {{transliteration|sem|ʔanta}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ʔant}}, ant, inta, inte, inti, int, (i)nta
| {{lang|gez|አንተ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔánta}}
| אתה {{transliteration|sem|ʔattā}}
| אנת {{transliteration|sem|ʔantā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|āt}}, {{transliteration|sem|āty}}, {{transliteration|sem|āten}}
| {{transliteration|sem|int}}, {{transliteration|sem|inti}}
|-
| You (sg., fem.)
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʔanti}}
| {{transliteration|sem|atti}}
| أنت {{transliteration|sem|ʔanti}}
| ʔanti, anti, {{transliteration|sem|inti, init}} (i)nti, intch
| {{lang|gez|አንቲ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔánti}}
| את {{transliteration|sem|ʔatt}}
| אנת {{transliteration|sem|ʔanti}}
| {{transliteration|sem|āt}}, {{transliteration|sem|āty}}, {{transliteration|sem|āten}}
| {{transliteration|sem|int}}, {{transliteration|sem|inti}}
|-
| He
| {{transliteration|sem|*suʔa}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šū}}
| هو {{transliteration|sem|huwa}}, hū
| {{transliteration|sem|huwwa, huwwe}}, hū
| {{lang|gez|ውእቱ}} {{transliteration|sem|wəʔətu}}
| הוא {{transliteration|sem|hū}}
| הוא {{transliteration|sem|hu}}
| {{transliteration|sem|owā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|hu}}, {{transliteration|sem|huwa}}
|-
| She
| {{transliteration|sem|*siʔa}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šī}}
| هي {{transliteration|sem|hiya}}, hī
| {{transliteration|sem|hiyya, hiyye}}, hī
| {{lang|gez|ይእቲ}} {{transliteration|sem|yəʔəti}}
| היא {{transliteration|sem|hī}}
| היא {{transliteration|sem|hi}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ayā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|hi}}, {{transliteration|sem|hija}}
|-
| We
| {{transliteration|sem|*niyaħnū, *niyaħnā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|nīnu}}
| نحن {{transliteration|sem|naħnu}}
| niħna, iħna, ħinna
| {{lang|gez|ንሕነ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔnəħnā}}
| אנו, אנחנו {{transliteration|sem|ʔānū, ʔănaħnū}}
| נחנא {{transliteration|sem|náħnā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|axnan}}
| {{transliteration|sem|aħna}}
|-
| You (dual)
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʔantunā}}
| 
| أنتما {{transliteration|sem|ʔantumā}}
|Plural form is used
| 
| <!-- does not exist -->
| 
|-
| They (dual)
| {{transliteration|sem|*sunā}}{{NoteTag|The Akkadian form is from Sargonic Akkadian. Among the Semitic languages, there are languages with /i/ as the final vowel (this is the form in Mehri). For a recent discussion concerning the reconstruction of the forms of the dual pronouns, see Bar-Asher, Elitzur. 2009. "Dual Pronouns in Semitics and an Evaluation of the Evidence for their Existence in Biblical Hebrew," Ancient Near Eastern Studies 46: 32–49}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*sunī(ti)}}
| هما {{transliteration|sem|humā}}
|Plural form is used
|
| 
| 
|-
| You (pl., masc.)
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʔantunū}}
| {{transliteration|sem|attunu}}
| أنتم {{transliteration|sem|ʔantum}}, {{transliteration|sem|ʔantumu}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ʔantum}}, antum, antu, {{transliteration|sem|intu, intum}}, (i)ntūma
| {{lang|gez|አንትሙ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔantəmu}}
| אתם {{transliteration|sem|ʔattem}}
| אנתן {{transliteration|sem|ʔantun}}
| | {{transliteration|sem|axtōxūn}}
| {{transliteration|sem|intom}}
|-
| You (pl., fem.)
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʔantinā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|attina}}
| أنتنّ {{transliteration|sem|ʔantunna}}<!--
| {{transl|sem|}}-->
|{{transliteration|sem|ʔantin}}, antin, {{transliteration|sem|ʔantum}}, antu, {{transliteration|sem|intu, intum}}, (i)ntūma
| {{lang|gez|አንትን}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔantən}}
| אתן {{transliteration|sem|ʔatten}}
| אנתן {{transliteration|sem|ʔanten}}
| {{transliteration|sem|axtōxūn}}
| {{transliteration|sem|intom}}
|-
| They (masc.)
| {{transliteration|sem|*sunū}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šunu}}
| هم {{transliteration|sem|hum}}, {{transliteration|sem|humu}}
| hum, {{transliteration|sem|humma}}, hūma, hom, hinne(n)
| {{lang|gez|እሙንቱ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔəmuntu}}
| הם, המה {{transliteration|sem|hēm, hēmmā}}
| הנן {{transliteration|sem|hinnun}}
| {{transliteration|sem|eni}}
| {{transliteration|sem|huma}}
|-
| They (fem.)
| {{transliteration|sem|*sinā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šina}}
| هنّ {{transliteration|sem|hunna}}<!--
| {{transl|sem|}}-->
|hin, hinne(n), hum, humma, hūma
| {{lang|gez|እማንቱ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔəmāntu}}
| הן, הנה {{transliteration|sem|hēn, hēnnā}}
| הנן {{transliteration|sem|hinnin}}
| {{transliteration|sem|eni}}
| {{transliteration|sem|huma}}
|-
|}

===Cardinal numerals===
{| class="wikitable"
! English
! Proto-Semitic<ref>{{cite book |last=Weninger |first=Stefan |year=2011 |chapter=Reconstructive Morphology |title=Semitic languages: an international handbook |editor-first=Stefan |editor-last=Weninger |location=Berlin |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |page=166 |doi=10.1515/9783110251586.151|isbn=978-3-11-018613-0 }}</ref>
! IPA
! Arabic
! Hebrew
! [[Sabaic]]
! Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
! Maltese
! Geʽez
|-
| One
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʼaḥad-, *ʻišt-}}
| {{IPA|ʔaħad, ʔiʃt}}
| واحد، أحد {{IPA|waːħid-, ʔaħad-}}
| אחד {{transliteration|sem|ʼeḥáḏ}}, {{IPA|ʔeˈχad}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ʔḥd}}
| {{transliteration|sem|xā}}
| wieħed
| አሐዱ ʾäḥädu
|-
| Two
| {{transliteration|sem|*ṯin-ān}} (nom.), {{transliteration|sem|*ṯin-ayn}} (obl.), {{transliteration|sem|*kilʼ-}}
| {{IPA|θinaːn, θinajn, kilʔ}}
| اثنان {{IPA|iθn-āni}} (nom.), اثنين {{IPA|iθn-ajni}} (obj.), اثنتان fem. iθnat-āni, اثنتين iθnat-ajni
| שנים {{transliteration|sem|šənáyim}} {{IPA|ˈʃn-ajim}}, fem. שתים {{transliteration|sem|šətáyim}} {{IPA|ˈʃt-ajim}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*ṯny}}
| {{transliteration|sem|treh}}
| tnejn
| ክልኤቱ kəlʾetu
|-
| Three
| {{transliteration|sem|*śalāṯ-}} > {{transliteration|sem|*ṯalāṯ-}}{{NoteTag|This root underwent regressive assimilation.{{sfn|Lipiński|2001|p=}}{{page needed|date=March 2022}} This parallels the non-adjacent assimilation of *ś... > *š...š in proto-Canaanite or proto-North-West-Semitic in the roots *śam?š > *šamš 'sun' and *śur?š > *šurš 'root'.{{sfn|Dolgopolsky|1999|pp=61–62}} The form ''{{transliteration|sem|*ṯalāṯ-}}'' appears in most languages (e.g. Aramaic, Arabic, Ugaritic), but the original form {{transliteration|sem|ślṯ}} appears in the [[Old South Arabian]] languages, and a form with ''s'' < {{transliteration|sem|*ś}} (rather than ''š'' < {{transliteration|sem|*ṯ}}) appears in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]].}}
| {{IPA|ɬalaːθ > θalaːθ}}
| ثلاث {{IPA|θalaːθ-}}
| fem. שלוש {{transliteration|sem|šālṓš}} {{IPA|ʃaˈloʃ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*ślṯ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ṭlā}}
| tlieta
| ሠለስቱ śälästu
|-
| Four
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʼarbaʻ-}}
| {{IPA|ʔarbaʕ}}
| أربع {{IPA|ʔarbaʕ-}}
| fem. ארבע {{transliteration|sem|ʼárbaʻ}} {{IPA|ˈʔaʁba}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʼrbʻ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|arpā}}
| erbgħa
| አርባዕቱ ʾärbaʿtu
|-
| Five
| {{transliteration|sem|*ḫamš-}}
| {{IPA|χamʃ}}
| خمس {{IPA|χams-}}
| fem. חמש {{transliteration|sem|ḥā́mēš}} {{IPA|ˈχameʃ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*ḫmš}}
| {{transliteration|sem|xamšā}}
| ħamsa
| ኀምስቱ ḫämsətu
|-
| Six
| {{transliteration|sem|*šidṯ-}}{{NoteTag|This root was also assimilated in various ways. For example, Hebrew reflects {{transliteration|sem|*šišš-}}, with total assimilation; Arabic reflects {{transliteration|sem|*šitt-}} in cardinal numerals, but less assimilated {{transliteration|sem|*šādiš-}} in ordinal numerals. [[Epigraphic South Arabian]] reflects original {{transliteration|sem|*šdṯ}}; Ugaritic has a form {{transliteration|sem|ṯṯ}}, in which the {{transliteration|sem|ṯ}} has been assimilated throughout the root.{{sfn|Lipiński|2001|p=}}{{page needed|date=March 2022}}}}
| {{IPA|ʃidθ}}
| ستّ {{IPA|sitt-}} (ordinal سادس {{IPA|saːdis-}})
| fem. שש {{transliteration|sem|šēš}} {{IPA|ʃeʃ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*šdṯ/šṯ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ëštā}}
| sitta
| ስድስቱ sədsətu
|-
| Seven
| {{transliteration|sem|*šabʻ-}}
| {{IPA|ʃabʕ}}
| سبع {{IPA|sabʕ-}}
| fem. שבע {{transliteration|sem|šéḇaʻ}} {{IPA|ˈʃeva}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*šbʻ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šowā}}
| sebgħa
| ሰብዐቱ säbʿätu
|-
| Eight
| {{transliteration|sem|*ṯamāniy-}}
| {{IPA|θamaːnij-}}
| ثماني {{IPA|θamaːn-ij-}}
| fem. שמונה {{transliteration|sem|šəmṓneh}} {{IPA|ʃˈmone}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*ṯmny/ṯmn}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*tmanyā}}
| tmienja 
| ሰማንቱ sämantu
|-
| Nine
| {{transliteration|sem|*tišʻ-}}
| {{IPA|tiʃʕ}}
| تسع {{IPA|tisʕ-}}
| fem. תשע {{transliteration|sem|tḗšaʻ}} {{IPA|ˈtejʃa}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*tšʻ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*učā}}
| disgħa
| ተስዐቱ täsʿätu
|-
| Ten
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʻaśr-}}
| {{IPA|ʕaɬr}}
| عشر {{IPA|ʕaʃ(a)r-}}
| fem. עשר {{transliteration|sem|ʻéśer}} {{IPA|ˈʔeseʁ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʻśr}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*uṣrā}}
| għaxra
| ዐሠርቱ ʿäśärtu
|-
|}
These are the basic numeral stems without feminine suffixes. In most older Semitic languages, the forms of the numerals from 3 to 10 exhibit [[polarity of gender]] (also called "chiastic concord" or "reverse agreement"), i.e. if the counted noun is masculine, the numeral would be feminine and vice versa.

===Typology===

Some early Semitic languages are speculated to have had weak [[ergative-absolutive language|ergative]] features.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|1995|pp=261–71}}; {{harvnb|Coghill|2016|p=}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}</ref>