Editing Stochastic (section)

== Language and linguistics ==
Non-deterministic approaches in language studies are largely inspired by the work of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], for example, in [[Functional theories of grammar|functionalist linguistic theory]], which argues that [[Linguistic competence|competence]] is based on [[Linguistic performance|performance]].<ref>Newmeyer, Frederick. 2001. "The Prague School and North American functionalist approaches to syntax" ''Journal of Linguistics'' 37, pp. 101–126. "Since most American functionalists adhere to this trend, I will refer to it and its practitioners with the initials 'USF'. Some of the more prominent USFs are [[Joan Bybee]], [[William Croft (linguist)|William Croft]], [[Talmy Givon]], [[John Haiman]], [[Paul J. Hopper|Paul Hopper]], [[Marianne Mithun]] and [[Sandra Thompson (linguist)|Sandra Thompson]]. In its most extreme form (Hopper 1987, 1988), USF rejects the Saussurean dichotomies such as langue vs. parôle. For early interpretivist approaches to focus, see Chomsky (1971) and Jackendoff (1972). parole and synchrony vs. diachrony. All adherents of this tendency feel that the Chomskyan advocacy of a sharp distinction between competence and performance is at best unproductive and obscurantist; at worst theoretically unmotivated.
"</ref><ref>Bybee, Joan. "Usage-based phonology." p. 213 in Darnel, Mike (ed). 1999. Functionalism and Formalism in Linguistics: General papers. John Benjamins Publishing Company</ref> This distinction in functional theories of grammar should be carefully distinguished from the [[langue and parole|''langue'' and ''parole'']] distinction. To the extent that linguistic knowledge is constituted by experience with language, grammar is argued to be probabilistic and variable rather than fixed and absolute.  This conception of grammar as probabilistic and variable follows from the idea that one's competence changes in accordance with one's experience with language. Though this conception has been contested,<ref>Chomsky (1959). Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior, Language, 35: 26–58</ref> it has also provided the foundation for modern statistical natural language processing<ref>Manning and Schütze, (1999) [https://books.google.com/books?id=YiFDxbEX3SUC Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing], MIT Press. Cambridge, MA</ref> and for theories of language learning and change.<ref>Bybee (2007) Frequency of use and the organization of language. Oxford: Oxford University Press</ref>