Editing Taa language (section)

====East ǃXoon (Traill)====
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ East ǃXoon dialect: Non-click consonants (Traill 2018)<ref name=Bennett>William Bennett (forthcoming) 'Click Phonology', in Sands (ed.) ''Click Consonants'', Brill, p. 102 ff.</ref>
! colspan=2|
! [[labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan=9 | [[plosive consonant|Plosive]]/<br />[[affricate]]
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|b}} || {{IPAlink|d̪}} || {{IPAlink|dz}} || ({{IPAlink|ɟ}}) || {{IPAlink|ɡ}} || {{IPAlink|ɢ}} [{{IPAlink|ᶰɢ}}] ||
|-
! <small>[[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]</small>
| ({{IPAlink|p}}) || {{IPAlink|t̪}} || {{IPAlink|ts}} || || {{IPAlink|k}} || {{IPAlink|q}} || {{IPAlink|ʔ}}
|-
! <small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|voiceless aspirated]]</small>
| ({{IPAlink|pʰ}}) || {{IPAlink|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPAlink|tsʰ}} || || {{IPAlink|kʰ}} || {{IPAlink|qʰ}} ||
|-
! <small>[[Aspirated consonant#Voiced stop|prevoiced aspirated]]</small>
| || {{IPAlink|ˬd̪̊ʰ}}|| {{IPAlink|ˬd̥sʰ}} || || ({{IPAlink|ˬɡ̊ʰ}}) || ({{IPAlink|ˬɢ̥ʰ}}) [{{IPAlink|ᶰɢ͡qʰ}}] ||
|-
! <small>[[velarized]]</small>
| ({{IPA|pχ}}) || {{IPA|t̪χ}} || {{IPA|tsχ}} || ||  ||  ||
|-
! <small>prevoiced velarized</small><ref group=note>voiced lead, voiceless at release</ref>
| || {{IPA|ˬd̥χ}} || {{IPA|ˬd̥sχ}} || || || ||
|-
! <small>[[ejective consonant|voiceless ejective]]</small>
| || ({{IPAlink|t̪ʼ}}) || {{IPAlink|tsʼ}} || || ({{IPAlink|kʼ}}) || ({{IPAlink|qʼ}}) ||
|-
! <small>ejective cluster</small><ref group=note>The final element of all of these varies dialectically between {{IPA|[kxʼ]}} and {{IPA|[kxʼq]}}.</ref>
| ({{IPA|pʼkχʼ}}) || {{IPA|t̪ʼkχʼ}} || {{IPA|tsʼkχʼ}} || || {{IPA|kxʼ}} || ||
|-
! <small>pre[[voiced ejective]]</small><ref group=note>"There is voice lead followed by an ejected stop followed by an ejected velar affricate. '''kχʼ''' is [kχʼ] or [kχʼq]."
</ref>
| || {{IPA|ˬd̪̊ʼkχʼ}}|| {{IPA|ˬd̥sʼkχʼ}} || || {{IPA|ˬɡ̊xʼ}} || ||
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| ({{IPAlink|f}}) || || {{IPAlink|s}} || || {{IPAlink|x}} || || ({{IPAlink|h}})
|-
! rowspan=2 | [[nasal stop|Nasal]] || <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|m}} || {{IPAlink|n̪}} || || -{{IPAlink|ɲ}}- || -{{IPAlink|ŋ}} || ||
|-
! <small>[[glottalization|glottalized]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|ˀm}} || || {{IPAlink|ˀn}} || || || ||
|-
! colspan=2 | <small>Other</small>
| -{{IPAlink|β}}- || || -{{IPAlink|l}}- || -{{IPAlink|j}}- || || ||
|}

{{notelist}}

Consonants in parentheses are rare.

The nasal {{IPA|[ɲ]}} only occurs between vowels, and {{IPA|[ŋ]}} only word finally (and then only in some dialects, for what are nasal vowels elsewhere), so these may be [[allophone]]s. {{IPA|[β], [l], [j]}} also only occur in medial position, except that the last is an allophone of rare initial {{IPA|[ɟ]}}. {{IPA|[dʒ]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} (not in the table) occur in loans, mostly English.

Taa is typologically unusual in having mixed-voice ejectives. [[Juǀʼhoansi language|Juǀʼhoansi]], which is part of the same [[sprachbund]] as Taa, has mixed voicing in {{IPA|[d͡tʰ, d͡tʃʰ, d͡tsʼ]}}.<ref>{{SOWL|63, 80–81}}</ref>

Taa may have as few as 83 [[click consonant|click sounds]], if the more complex clicks are analyzed as [[consonant cluster|clusters]]. Given the intricate clusters posited seen in the non-click consonants, it is not surprising that many of the Taa clicks should be analyzed as clusters. However, there is some debate whether these are actually clusters; all non-Khoisan languages in the world that have clusters allow clusters with [[sonorant]]s like ''r, l, w, j'' (as in English ''tree, sleep, quick, cue''), and this does not occur in Taa.

There are five click articulations: [[bilabial consonant|bilabial]], [[dental consonant|dental]], [[lateral consonant|lateral]], [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]], and [[palatal consonant|palatal]]. There are nineteen series, differing in phonation, manner, and complexity (see [[airstream contour]]). These are perfectly normal consonants in Taa, and indeed are preferred over non-clicks in word-initial position.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ East ǃXoon dialect: Click consonants (Traill 2018)<ref name=Bennett/>
! colspan=3 | noisy clicks || colspan=2 | 'sharp' clicks' || rowspan=2 | manner, along with speaker or dialect variation || rowspan=2| DoBeS cluster<br />analysis || rowspan=2| Miller (2011)<br />analysis<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Amanda |title=The Blackwell Companion to Phonology |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4051-8423-6 |editor-last=van Oostendorp |editor-first=M. |volume=1 |page=434 |chapter=The Representation of Clicks |editor-last2=Ewen |editor-first2=C. |editor-last3=Hume |editor-first3=E. |editor-last4=Rice |editor-first4=K. |issue=1}}</ref>
|-
! [[bilabial click|bilabial]] || [[dental click|dental]] || [[lateral click|lateral]]|| [[alveolar click|alveolar]] || [[palatal click|palatal]]
|-
| {{IPAlink|kʘ}} || {{IPAlink|kǀ}} || {{IPAlink|kǁ}} || {{IPAlink|kǃ}} || {{IPAlink|kǂ}} || Weak tenuis {{IPAblink|k}} release ||{{IPA|kꞰ}} || {{IPA|Ʞ}}{{notetag|name=wildcard|{{angbr IPA|Ʞ}} is a [[International Phonetic Alphabet#Capital letters|wildcard letter]] for any click, or in this context any click articulation.}}
|-
| {{IPAlink|ɡʘ}} || {{IPAlink|ɡǀ}} || {{IPAlink|ɡǁ}} || {{IPAlink|ɡǃ}} || {{IPAlink|ɡǂ}} || Voiced velar {{IPAblink|ɡ}} throughout the hold of the click ||{{IPA|ɡꞰ}} || {{IPA|ᶢꞰ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ʘq}} || {{IPA|ǀq}} || {{IPA|ǁq}} || {{IPA|ǃq}} || {{IPA|ǂq}} || Released as a tenuis uvular stop {{IPAblink|q}} that is delayed considerably beyond the release of the click ||{{IPA|kꞰ + q}} || {{IPA|Ʞ͜q}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɴʘɢ}} || {{IPA|ɴǀɢ}} || {{IPA|ɴǁɢ}} || {{IPA|ɴǃɢ}} || {{IPA|ɴǂɢ}} || Prenasalized {{IPAblink|ɴ}}, with a voiced uvular release {{IPAblink|ɢ}}||{{IPA|kꞰ + ɢ}} || {{IPA|ᶢꞰ͜ɢ}}
<!--|-
| {{IPA|kʘʰ}} || {{IPA|kǀʰ}} || {{IPA|kǁʰ}} || {{IPA|}} || {{IPA|kǂʰ}} || Aspirated velar {{IPA|[kʰ]}} release || {{IPA|kꞰ + qʰ}} ?* || {{IPA|kꞰʰ}}
-->
|-
| {{IPA|ɡʘh}} || {{IPA|ɡǀh}} || {{IPA|ɡǁh}} || {{IPA|ɡǃh}} || {{IPA|ɡǂh}} || Voiced lead with delayed aspiration (phonemically voiced lead with simple aspiration) || {{IPA|ɡꞰ + qʰ}} || {{IPA|ᶢꞰʱ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ʘqʰ}} || {{IPA|ǀqʰ}} || {{IPA|ǁqʰ}} || {{IPA|ǃqʰ}} || {{IPA|}} || Cineradiology shows that the articulation is indeed uvular {{IPA|[qʰ]}} || {{IPA|kꞰ + qʰ}} ?* || {{IPA|Ʞ͜qʰ}}
|-
| {{IPA|}} || ({{IPA|ɴɢǀqʰ}}) || ({{IPA|ɴɢǁqʰ}}) || ({{IPA|ɴɢǃqʰ}}) || ({{IPA|ɴɢǂqʰ}}) || "Prenasalization with a uvular nasal {{IPAblink|ɴ}} and a brief uvular stop before the click, which is followed by an aspirated uvular stop" ||{{IPA|ɡꞰ + ɢqʰ}} || {{IPA|ᶢꞰ͜ɢʱ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ʘx}} || {{IPA|kǀχ}} || {{IPA|kǁχ}} || {{IPA|kǃχ}} || {{IPA|kǂχ}} || Voiceless velar affricate {{IPAblink|kx}} release, considerably fricative ||{{IPA|kꞰ + x}} || {{IPA|Ʞ͜qχ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɡʘχ}} || {{IPA|ɡǀχ}} || {{IPA|ɡǁχ}} || {{IPA|ɡǃχ}} || {{IPA|ɡǂχ}} || Voiced lead which ceases before the release of the click, like {{IPA|ɡkx}}. In some dialects, voiced throughout: {{IPA|[gꞰɣ]}}. ||{{IPA|ɡꞰ + x}} || {{IPA|ᶢꞰ͜ɢʁ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ʘkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ǀkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ǁkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ǃkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ǂkχʼ}} || Released into {{IPA|[kχʼ]}} or {{IPA|[kʼq]}}<!--yes, that's [kʼq] and not [kxʼq]-->, depending on dialect ||{{IPA|kꞰ + kxʼ}} || {{IPA|Ʞ͜kxʼ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɡʘkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ɡǀkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ɡǁkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ɡǃkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ɡǂkχʼ}} || Voiced lead, {{IPA|[kχʼ]}} or {{IPA|[kʼq]}} release ||{{IPA|ɡꞰ + kxʼ}} || {{IPA|ᶢꞰ͜kxʼ}}
|-
| {{IPA|kʘˀ}} || {{IPA|kǀˀ}} || {{IPA|kǁˀ}} || {{IPA|kǃˀ}} || {{IPA|kǂˀ}} || Silent release, followed after some delay by the release of a glottal stop {{IPAblink|ʔ}} ||{{IPA|kꞰ + ʔ}} || {{IPA|ᵑꞰˀ}} 
<!--|-
| {{IPA|ʘkʼ}} || {{IPA|ǀkʼ}} || {{IPA|ǁkʼ}} || {{IPA|}} || {{IPA|ǂkʼ}} || Released as an unaffricated velar ejective {{IPA|[kʼ]}} || rowspan=2| {{IPA|kꞰ + qʼ}} * || {{IPA|Ʞˀ}}
-->
|-
| {{IPA|ʘqʼ}} || {{IPA|ǀqʼ}} || {{IPA|ǁqʼ}} || {{IPA|ǃqʼ}} || {{IPA|ǂqʼ}} || Released as an unaffricated uvular ejective {{IPAblink|qʼ}} || {{IPA|Ʞ͜qʼ}}
|-
| {{IPA|n̥ʘ}} || {{IPA|n̥ǀ}} || {{IPA|n̥ǁ}} || {{IPA|n̥ǃ}} || {{IPA|n̥ǂ}} || Voiceless nasal airflow {{IPAblink|ŋ̊}} throughout the hold of the click || {{IPA|ŋ̊Ʞ}} || {{IPA|ᵑ̊Ʞ}}
|-
| {{IPA|nʘ}} || {{IPA|nǀ}} || {{IPA|nǁ}} || {{IPA|nǃ}} || {{IPA|nǂ}} || Voiced velar nasal airflow {{IPAblink|ŋ}} throughout the hold of the click || {{IPA|ŋꞰ}} || {{IPA|ᵑꞰ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ʔnʘ}} || {{IPA|ʔnǀ}} || {{IPA|ʔnǁ}} || {{IPA|ʔnǃ}} || {{IPA|ʔnǂ}} || Preglottalized nasal {{IPA|[ˀŋ]}}, "best described as a click superimposed on the sequence {{IPA|[ʔŋ]}} ... the release of the click is immediately after a brief period of {{IPAblink|ŋ}}" ||{{IPA|kꞰ + mˀ/nˀ}} || {{IPA|ˀᵑꞰ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɴ̥ʘh}} || {{IPA|ɴ̥ǀh}} || {{IPA|ɴ̥ǁh}} || {{IPA|ɴ̥ǃh}} || {{IPA|ɴ̥ǂh}} || Delayed aspiration: inaudible release followed by crescendo aspiration.{{efn|Inaudibility achieved "by a complex venting of the pulmonic pressure (Traill 1992). In fast speech the venting may sometimes be accompanied by a brief period of nasalization of the vowel and an intrusive velar nasal preceding the click." Ladefoged characterized them as ingressive voiceless nasal airflow {{IPA|[↓ŋ̊]}} with delayed aspiration.}} ||{{IPA|kꞰ + h}} || {{IPA|ᵑ̊Ʞʰ}}
|}
{{notelist}}

The DoBeS project takes Traill's cluster analysis to mean that only the twenty tenuis, voiced, nasal, and voiceless nasal clicks are basic, with the rest being clusters of the tenuis and voiced clicks with {{IPA|x, kxʼ, q, ɢ, qʰ, ɢqʰ, qʼ, ʔ, h}} and either {{IPA|mˀ}} or {{IPA|nˀ}}. Work on Taa's sister language Nǁng suggests that all clicks in both languages have a uvular or rear articulation, and that the clicks considered to be uvular here are actually lingual–pulmonic and lingual–glottalic airstream [[contour (linguistics)|contour]]s. It may be that the 'prevoiced' consonants of Taa, including prevoiced clicks, can also be analyzed as contour consonants, in this case with voicing contours.

<nowiki>*</nowiki> DoBeS only matches 17 series to Traill, as the {{IPA|Ʞkʰ}}–{{IPA|Ʞqʰ}} and {{IPA|Ʞkʼ}}–{{IPA|Ʞqʼ}} distinctions he discovered had not yet been published. DoBeS {{angbr IPA|Ʞh}} and {{angbr IPA|Ʞqh}}, respectively, correspond to the former pair, while {{angbr IPA|Ʞʼ}} and {{angbr IPA|Ʞʼʼ}} (presumably in that order, as uvular clicks tend to have a delayed release) correspond to the latter pair.

Traill's account of East ǃXoon leaves for voiceless series of clicks without equivalents with a voiced lead. The DoBeS account of West ǃXoon, which uses voicing for morphological derivation to a greater extent than East ǃXoon does, has four additional series, written nꞰʼʼ, gꞰʼ, gꞰqʼ and nꞰhh in their practical orthography. The first three match the unpaired glottalized series of Traill, {{IPA|Ʞˀ}} (= {{IPA|ᵑꞰˀ}}), {{IPA|Ʞkʼ}}, {{IPA|Ʞqʼ}}. If Traill's {{IPA|ɡꞰh}} series is the voiced equivalent of plain aspirated {{IPA|Ʞʰ}}, rather than delayed aspirated, that would leave the DobeS nꞰhh series as voiced delayed aspiration.

All nasal clicks have twin airstreams, since the air passing through the nose bypasses the tongue. Usually this is [[pulmonic egressive]]. However, the {{IPA|↓ŋ̊Ʞh}} series in Taa is characterized by pulmonic ''[[pulmonic ingressive|ingressive]]'' nasal airflow. Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:268) state that "This ǃXóõ click is probably unique among the sounds of the world's languages that, even in the middle of a sentence, it may have ingressive pulmonic airflow." Taa is the only language known to contrast voiceless nasal and voiceless nasal aspirated (i.e. delayed aspirated) clicks (Miller 2011).