Editing Tabula rasa (section)

==Science==

===Psychology and neurobiology===
{{main|Nature versus nurture|Sex differences in humans}}
Psychologists and neurobiologists have shown evidence that initially, the entire [[cerebral cortex]] is programmed and organized to process sensory input, control motor actions, regulate emotion, and respond reflexively (under predetermined conditions).<ref name="tabula rasa0">{{cite journal
|doi=10.1126/science.3291116
|author=Rakic P. |title=Specification of cerebral cortical areas |journal=Science |volume=241 |issue=4862 |pages=170–6 |date=July 1988 |pmid=3291116 |bibcode=1988Sci...241..170R}}
</ref> These programmed mechanisms in the brain subsequently act to learn and refine the ability of the organism.<ref name="tabula rasa1">{{cite journal|author=Nir Kalisman|last2=Gilad Silberberg|last3=Henry Markram|date=January 2005|title=The neocortical microcircuit as a tabula rasa|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.|volume=102|issue=3|pages=880–5|bibcode=2005PNAS..102..880K|doi=10.1073/pnas.0407088102|pmc=545526|pmid=15630093|doi-access=free}}
</ref><ref name="tabula rasa2">{{cite journal
|author=Le Bé JV, Markram H |title=Spontaneous and evoked synaptic rewiring in the neonatal neocortex |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=103 |issue=35 |pages=13214–9 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16924105 |pmc=1559779 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0604691103 |last2=Markram |bibcode=2006PNAS..10313214L|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Psychological research has shown that — in contrast to written language — the brain is "hard-wired" at birth to acquire spoken language, something argued by both psychologist [[Steven Pinker]]<ref name="Pinker 2002"/> and by the [[universal grammar]] theory of [[Noam Chomsky]].<ref name=ChomskyTool>{{Cite web|url=http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/outil_rouge06.html|title=Tool Module: Chomsky's Universal Grammar|website=thebrain.mcgill.ca|access-date=2017-08-28}}</ref>

There have been claims by a minority in psychology and neurobiology, however, that the brain is ''tabula rasa'' only for certain behaviours. For instance, with respect to one's ability to acquire both general and special types of knowledge or skills, [[Michael Howe (psychologist)|Michael Howe]] argued against the existence of innate talent.<ref name=howe1998>M. J. Howe, [[J. W. Davidson]] and J. A. Sloboda. (1998). [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=29991 Innate talents: reality or myth?] ''[[Behavioral and Brain Sciences|Behav. Brain. Sci.]]'', '''21''', 399–407; discussion 407–42.</ref> There also have been neurological investigations into specific learning and memory functions, such as [[Karl Lashley]]'s study on [[Mass Action Principle (neuroscience)|mass action]] and serial interaction mechanisms.

Important evidence against the ''tabula rasa'' model of the mind comes from [[behavioural genetics]], especially [[twin studies|twin]] and [[adoption]] studies (see below). These indicate strong genetic influences on personal characteristics such as [[IQ]], [[alcoholism]], [[gender identity]], and other traits.<ref name="Pinker 2002">[[Steven Pinker|Pinker, Steven]]. [[The Blank Slate]]. New York: Penguin. 2002.</ref> Critically, multivariate studies show that the distinct faculties of the mind, such as memory and reason, fractionate along genetic boundaries. Cultural universals such as [[emotion]] and the relative resilience of psychological adaptation to accidental biological changes also support basic biological mechanisms in the mind.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diamond |first1=Milton |author-link= Milton Diamond |last2=Sigmundson |first2=HK |title=Sex Reassignment at Birth |journal=Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine |date=1 March 1997 |volume=151 |issue=3 |pages=298–304 |doi=10.1001/archpedi.1997.02170400084015 |pmid=9080940 }}</ref>

====Social pre-wiring hypothesis====
[[Twin study|Twin studies]] have resulted in important evidence against the ''tabula rasa'' model of the mind, specifically, of [[social behaviour]]. The ''social pre-wiring'' ''hypothesis'' (also informally known as "'''wired to be social'''") refers to the [[ontogeny]] of [[social relation|social interaction]]. The theory questions whether there is a propensity to [[social actions|socially oriented action]] already present ''before'' birth. Research in the theory concludes that newborns are born into the world with a unique [[genetics|genetic]] wiring to be social.<ref name="pmid20949058">{{cite journal |last1=Castiello |first1=Umberto |last2=Becchio |first2=Cristina |last3=Zoia |first3=Stefania |last4=Nelini |first4=Cristian |last5=Sartori |first5=Luisa |last6=Blason |first6=Laura |last7=D'Ottavio |first7=Giuseppina |last8=Bulgheroni |first8=Maria |last9=Gallese |first9=Vittorio |last10=Rustichini |first10=Aldo |title=Wired to Be Social: The Ontogeny of Human Interaction |journal=PLOS ONE|date=7 October 2010 |volume=5 |issue=10 |pages=e13199 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0013199 |pmid=20949058 |pmc=2951360 |bibcode=2010PLoSO...513199C |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Circumstantial evidence]] supporting the social pre-wiring hypothesis can be revealed when examining newborns' behaviour. Newborns, not even hours after birth, have been found to display a preparedness for [[social relation|social interaction]]. This preparedness is expressed in ways such as their imitation of facial gestures. This observed behaviour cannot be attributed to any current form of [[socialization]] or [[social construction]]. Rather, newborns most likely [[heredity|inherit]] to some extent [[social behaviour]] and [[identity (social science)|identity]] through [[genetics]].<ref name="pmid20949058" />

Principal evidence for this theory is uncovered by examining twin pregnancies. The main argument is, if there are [[social behaviour]]s that are [[heredity|inherited]] and developed before birth, then one should expect twin fetuses to engage in some form of [[social relation|social interaction]] before they are born. Thus, ten fetuses were analyzed over a period of time using ultrasound techniques. Using kinematic analysis, the results of the experiment were that the twin fetuses would interact with each other for longer periods and more often as the pregnancies went on. Researchers were able to conclude that the performance of movements between the co-twins were not accidental but specifically aimed.<ref name=pmid20949058/>

The social pre-wiring hypothesis was proven correct:<ref name=pmid20949058/><blockquote>The central advance of this study is the demonstration that '[[social actions]]' are already performed in the second trimester of [[Gestational age (obstetrics)|gestation]]. Starting from the 14th week of [[Gestational age (obstetrics)|gestation]] twin fetuses plan and execute movements specifically aimed at the co-twin. These findings force us to predate the emergence of [[social behaviour]]: when the context enables it, as in the case of twin fetuses, other-directed actions are not only possible but predominant over self-directed actions.</blockquote>

===Computer science===
In [[artificial intelligence]], ''tabula rasa'' refers to the development of autonomous agents with a mechanism to reason and plan toward their goal, but no "built-in" knowledge-base of their environment. Thus, they truly are a blank slate.{{cn|date=August 2024}}

In reality, autonomous agents possess an initial [[Data set|data-set]] or knowledge-base, but this cannot be immutable or it would hamper autonomy and heuristic ability. Even if the data-set is empty, it usually may be argued that there is a built-in [[bias]] in the reasoning and planning mechanisms. Either intentionally or unintentionally placed there by the human designer, it thus negates the true spirit of ''tabula rasa''.<ref>[http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/koans.html The Jargon Files: "Sussman attains enlightenment"], also see the article section [[Hacker koan#Uncarved block|Hacker koan: Uncarved block]]</ref>

A synthetic (programming) language [[Parsing|parser]] ([[LR(1)]], [[LALR(1)]] or [[SLR(1)]], for example) could be considered a special case of a ''tabula rasa'', as it is designed to accept ''any'' of a possibly infinite set of source language programs, within a ''single'' programming language, and to output either a good parse of the program, or a good machine language translation of the program, either of which represents a ''success'', or, alternately, a ''failure'', and nothing else. The "initial data-set" is a set of tables which are generally produced mechanically by a parser table generator, usually from a [[Backus–Naur form|BNF]] representation of the source language, and represents a "table representation" of that ''single'' programming language.

[[AlphaZero]] achieved superhuman performance in [[chess]] and [[shogi]] using [[Self-play (reinforcement learning technique)|self-play]] and ''tabula rasa'' [[reinforcement learning]], meaning it had no access to human games or [[Hard coding|hard-coded]] human knowledge about either board game, only the rules of the games.<ref name="preprint">Silver, David, Thomas Hubert, Julian Schrittwieser, Ioannis Antonoglou, et al. 2017. "[https://arxiv.org/pdf/1712.01815.pdf Mastering Chess and Shogi by Self-Play with a General Reinforcement Learning Algorithm]." {{Arxiv|1712.01815}} [https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.AI cs.AI].</ref>