Editing Traffic congestion (section)

==Countermeasures==
{{Further|Mobility transition}}

===Improving road infrastructure===
[[File:Grnfld Ramp.jpg|thumb|Metered ramp on [[Interstate 894|I-894]] in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], U.S. The queue of cars waiting at the red light can be seen on the upper portion of the picture.]]
[[File:A38(M) Aston Expressway.jpg|thumb|The [[A38(M) motorway|A38M Aston Expressway]] in [[Aston]], towards central [[Birmingham]] - the lanes are controlled via the overhead gantries, which reverse the flow of one lane (making 4 in one direction, 2 in the other and a central buffer lane) during peak times accordingly.]]
[[File:404HOV lane.png|thumb|upright|The HOV lanes in [[Highway 404]] in [[Southern Ontario]] are separated by a stripped buffer zone that breaks occasionally to allow vehicles to enter and exit the HOV lane.]]

* Increasing road capacity is standard response to congestion, perhaps by widening an existing road or adding a new road, bridge or tunnel. However, this has been shown to result in attracting more traffic, otherwise known as [[induced demand]]. The result can be greater congestion on the expanded artery itself or on auxiliary roads.<ref name="Schneider 2018">{{cite web |last1=Schneider |first1=Benjamin |title=CityLab University: Induced Demand |website=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-09-06/traffic-jam-blame-induced-demand |access-date=January 18, 2022 |date=September 6, 2018}}</ref> In a similar vein, [[Braess's paradox]] shows that adding road capacity might make congestion worse, even if demand does not increase. In his paper, "The Law of Peak Hour Express Way Congestion", published in 1962, Anthony Downs formulated this phenomenon as a "law": "on urban commuter expressways, peak-hour traffic congestion rises to meet maximum capacity."{{sfn |Downs |1962 |p=393}}
* [[Junction (road)|Junction]] improvements
** [[Grade separation]], using bridges (or, less often, tunnels) freeing movements from having to stop for other crossing movements
** [[Ramp meter|Ramp signaling]], 'drip-feeding' merging traffic via [[traffic signal]]s onto a congested motorway-type roadway
** Reducing junctions
*** [[Local-express lanes]], providing through lanes that bypass junction on-ramp and off-ramp zones
*** [[Limited-access road]], roads that limit the type and amounts of [[driveway]]s along their lengths
* [[Reversible lane]]s, where certain sections of highway operate in the opposite direction on different times of the day(s) of the week, to match asymmetric demand. These pose a potential for collisions, if drivers do not notice the change in direction indicators. This may be controlled by [[variable-message sign]]s or by movable physical separation
* Separate lanes for specific user groups (usually with the goal of higher people throughput with fewer vehicles)
** [[Bus lanes]] as part of a [[Bus rapid transit|busway system]]
** [[High-occupancy toll lane|Express toll lanes]]
** [[High-occupancy vehicle lane|HOV lanes]], for vehicles with at least three (sometimes at least two) riders, intended to encourage [[carpool]]ing
*** [[Slugging]], impromptu carpooling at HOV access points, on a [[hitchhiking]] or payment basis
*** [[Market economy|Market-based]] carpooling with pre-negotiated financial incentives for the driver

===Urban planning and design===
[[Urban planning|City planning]] and [[urban design]] practices can have a huge impact on levels of future traffic congestion, though they are of limited relevance for short-term change.
* [[Grid plan]]s including [[Fused Grid|fused grid]] road network geometry, rather than tree-like [[network topology]] which branches into [[cul-de-sac]]s (which reduce local traffic, but increase total distances driven and discourage walking by reducing connectivity). This avoids concentration of traffic on a small number of [[arterial road]]s and allows more trips to be made without a car.
* Zoning laws that encourage [[mixed-use development]], which reduces distances between residential, commercial, retail, and recreational destinations and encourage cycling and walking. Cycling [[modal share]] is strongly associated with the availability of local [[cycling infrastructure]].<ref name="Mueller">{{cite journal  | last = Mueller  | first = N  | title = Health impact assessment of cycling network expansions in European cities.  | journal = Preventive Medicine  | volume = 109  | pages = 62–70  | year = 2018  | pmid = 29330030  | doi = 10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.12.011  | url = http://repositori.upf.edu/bitstream/10230/42143/1/Mueller_pm_heal.pdf  | hdl = 10230/42143  | s2cid = 3774985 | archive-date = March 30, 2021  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210330012535/http://repositori.upf.edu/bitstream/handle/10230/42143/Mueller_pm_heal.pdf;jsessionid=D3FA607F020DED5CD545603856BC37E5?sequence=1  | url-status = live  | hdl-access = free  }}</ref>
* [[Carfree city|Carfree cities]], car-light cities, and eco-cities designed to eliminate the need to travel by car for most inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2005/nov/06/china.theobserver |title=British to help China build 'eco-cities' |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414042203/http://www.theguardian.com/business/2005/nov/06/china.theobserver |archive-date=April 14, 2016  |work=[[The Observer]] |date=November 6, 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/15.05/feat_popup.html|title=''Wired'', Pop-Up Cities: China Builds a Bright Green Metropolis, 04.24.07|magazine=Wired|access-date=October 5, 2014|date=April 24, 2007|last1=McGray|first1=Douglas|archive-date=March 25, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325182000/http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/15.05/feat_popup.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Transit-oriented development]] are residential and commercial areas designed to maximize access to public transport by providing a transit station or stop ([[train station]], [[metro station]], [[tram stop]], or [[bus stop]]).

===Supply and demand===
{{See also|Transportation demand management}}
[[File:Autoroute M25.jpg|thumb|Widening works under way on the [[M25 motorway]] surrounding [[London, England]] to increase the number of lanes]]
[[File:Noratrun.jpg|thumb|right|During [[rush hour]], right turns onto the side street shown here are prohibited in order to prevent [[rat running]].]]
Congestion can be reduced by either increasing road capacity (supply), or by reducing traffic (demand). Capacity can be increased in a number of ways, but needs to take account of [[induced demand|latent demand]] otherwise it may be used more strongly than anticipated. Critics of the approach of adding capacity have compared it to "fighting [[obesity]] by letting out your belt" (inducing demand that did not exist before). For example, when new lanes are created, households with a second car that used to be parked most of the time may begin to use this second car for commuting.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.janeholtzkay.com/Articles/cleancar.html |title=Dreaming of a Clean Car? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518004530/http://www.janeholtzkay.com/Articles/cleancar.html |archive-date=May 18, 2008 |author-link=Jane Holtz Kay|last=Kay |first=Jane Holtz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://naioptb.org/news/2005mayors.asp |title=2005 Mayors Luncheon |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927223155/http://naioptb.org/news/2005mayors.asp |archive-date=September 27, 2007 |work=the NAIOP website, [[Tampa Bay]], United States}}</ref> Reducing road capacity has in turn been attacked as removing free choice as well as increasing travel costs and times, placing an especially high burden on the low income residents who must commute to work.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}

Increased supply can include:
* Adding more capacity at bottlenecks (such as by adding more lanes at the expense of [[hard shoulder]]s or safety zones, or by removing local obstacles like bridge supports and widening tunnels)
* Adding more capacity over the whole of a route (generally by adding more lanes)
* Creating new routes
* Traffic management improvements (see separate section below)

Reduction of demand can include:
* [[Parking|Parking restrictions]], making motor vehicle use less attractive by increasing the monetary and non-monetary costs of parking, introducing greater competition for limited city or road space.<ref>{{Cite journal | author = Hermann Knoflacher | year = 2006 | title = A new way to organize parking: the key to a successful sustainable transport system for the future | journal = Environment and Urbanization | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 387–400 | doi = 10.1177/0956247806069621 | bibcode = 2006EnUrb..18..387K | s2cid = 153752634 | author-link = Hermann Knoflacher| doi-access = free }}
</ref> Most transport planning experts agree that [[free parking]] distorts the market in favor of car travel, exacerbating congestion.<ref>
{{Cite book |last= Shoup |first= Donald C. |author-link = Donald Shoup|title= The High Cost of Free Parking |year=2005|publisher=American Planning Association |isbn=978-1-884829-98-7}}
</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last= Knoflacher| first= Hermann| author-link= Hermann Knoflacher| title= Stehzeuge. Der Stau ist kein Verkehrsproblem.| orig-year= 2001| publisher= Böhlau| location= Vienna| language= de| isbn= 978-3-205-98988-2| date=January 2001}}</ref>
* [[Park and ride]] facilities allowing parking at a distance and allowing continuation by [[public transport]] or [[car pool|ride sharing]]. Park-and-ride [[car park]]s are commonly found at [[metro station]]s, freeway entrances in suburban areas, and at the edge of smaller cities.
* Reduction of road capacity to force traffic onto other [[modal share|travel modes]]. Methods include [[traffic calming]] and the [[shared space]] concept.
* [[Road pricing]], charging money for access onto a road/specific area at certain times, congestion levels or for certain road users
** "Cap and trade", in which only licensed cars are allowed on the roads.<ref>
{{Cite journal
 | last = Goddard
 | first = Haynes
 |date=July 1997
 | title =  Using Tradeable Permits to Achieve Sustainability in the World's Large Cities
 | journal = Environmental and Resource Economics
 | volume = 10
 | issue = 1
 | pages = 63–99
 | doi = 10.1023/A:1026444113237
 | s2cid = 154186781
 }}
</ref> A limited quota of car licenses are issued each year and traded in a [[free market]] fashion. This guarantees that the number of cars does not exceed road capacity while avoiding the negative effects of [[economic shortage|shortages]] normally associated with quotas. However, since demand for cars tends to be inelastic, the result are exorbitant purchase prices for the licenses, pricing out the lower levels of society, as seen Singapore's [[Certificate of Entitlement]] scheme.<ref name="toh">{{Cite web |url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_n2_v37/ai_15419789 |title=The high cost of motoring in Singapore |last=Toh |first=Rex S. |work=Business Horizons |date=March–April 1994 |access-date=October 2, 2017 |archive-date=October 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017130544/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_n2_v37/ai_15419789 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
** [[Congestion pricing]], including:
*** Congestion zone charges, in which entry via car to a certain area, such as the inner part of a city, requires payment. Enforcement may be a physical boundary (e.g., toll stations) or it may be virtual, via spot checks or cameras. Major examples include [[congestion pricing in New York City]]; [[Singapore]]'s [[electronic road pricing]]; the [[London congestion charge]]; and the [[Stockholm congestion tax]].
*** Fixed (the same at all times of day), variable (higher at peak times), or dynamic (higher during actual congestion) [[toll road]]s, [[toll bridge]]s, [[toll tunnel]]s, and toll lanes
* [[Managed lane]]s
** [[High-occupancy toll lane]]s
** [[Reversible lane]]s
** [[High-occupancy vehicle lane]]s
** [[Bus lane]]s
** [[Truck lane restriction]]s and [[climbing lane]]s, to allow faster vehicles to move unimpeded
** Allowing driving on highway shoulders at peak times
* [[Road space rationing]], where regulatory restrictions prevent certain types of vehicles from driving under certain circumstances or in certain areas.
** [[Vehicle registration plate|Number plate]] restrictions based on days of the week, as practiced in several large cities in the world, such as [[Athens]],<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.leda.ils.nrw.de/database/measures/meas0205.htm|title=LEDA Measure: License plate based traffic restrictions, Athens, Greece|publisher=LEDA database|access-date=April 9, 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227030125/http://www.leda.ils.nrw.de/database/measures/meas0205.htm|archive-date=February 27, 2008}}
</ref> [[Mexico City]], [[Manila]], and São Paulo.<ref name=konsult>{{cite web |url         = http://www.elseviersocialsciences.com/transport/konsult/private/level2/instruments/instrument009/l2_009a.htm |title       = Regulatory restrictions |work        = KonSULT, the Knowledgebase on Sustainable Urban Land use and Transport |publisher   = Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds |url-status     = dead |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20040825080318/http://www.elseviersocialsciences.com/transport/konsult/private/level2/instruments/instrument009/l2_009a.htm |archive-date = August 25, 2004
}}
</ref> In effect, such cities are banning a different part of the automobile fleet from roads each day of the week. Mainly introduced to combat [[smog]], these measures also reduce congestion. A weakness of this method is that richer drivers can purchase a second or third car to circumvent the ban.{{Citation needed|date=September 2007}}
** [[License|Permits]], where only certain types of vehicles (such as residents) are permitted to enter a certain area, and other types (such as through-traffic) are banned.<ref name=konsult/> For example, [[Bertrand Delanoë]], the mayor of [[Paris]], has proposed to impose a complete ban on motor vehicles in the city's inner districts, with exemptions only for residents, businesses, and the disabled.<ref>{{Cite news | first = Jon | last = Henley | title = Paris drive to cut traffic in centre by 75% | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/mar/15/france.jonhenley | work = [[The Guardian]] | location = London | date = March 15, 2005 | archive-date = September 18, 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140918025826/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/mar/15/france.jonhenley | url-status = live }}</ref>
[[File:TrafficJamBikeLane.jpg|thumb|Bike lane constructed in areas of low space to encourage use of human-sized transportation]]
* [[Policy]] approaches, which usually attempt to provide either strategic alternatives or which encourage greater usage of existing alternatives through promotion, subsidies or restrictions.
** Incentives to use [[public transport]], increasing modal shares. This can be achieved through infrastructure investment, subsidies, transport [[Intermodal passenger transport|integration]], pricing strategies that decrease the [[marginal cost]]/[[fixed cost]] ratios,<ref name=simon>
{{Cite journal  | first = Hermann  | last = Simon |author2=Robert J Dolan  | title = Price Customization  | publisher = American Marketing Association  | journal = Marketing Management  | volume = 7  | issue = 3}}</ref><ref name=link>{{Cite journal  | first = Heike  | last = Link  | title =  PEP-A Yield-Management Scheme for Rail Passenger Fares in Germany  | journal = Japan Railway & Transport Review  | volume = 38  |date=March 2004  | page = 54}}</ref> improved [[Public transport timetable|timetabling]] and greater priority for buses to reduce journey time e.g. [[bus lanes]] or [[bus rapid transit]] .<ref>{{Cite journal| last = Andersen | first = Bjørn |date=January 1993 | title = A survey of the Swiss public transport system and policy | journal = Transport Reviews | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 61–81 | doi = 10.1080/01441649308716835 }}
</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/2058/|title= The philosophy and practice of Taktfahrplan: a case-study of the East Coast Main Line| first= Adrian | last=May|date= March 16, 2007|format= Working Paper|work= Working Paper 579|publisher= Institute of Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK|archive-date= December 10, 2007|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071210001239/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/2058/|url-status= live}}</ref>
** [[Utility cycling|Cycling]] promotion through legislation, cycle facilities, subsidies, and awareness campaigns.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Ogilvie | first1 = David | first2=Matt | last2=Egan |author3=Val Hamilton |author4=Mark Petticrew  | date = September 22, 2004 | title = Promoting walking and cycling as an alternative to using cars: systematic review | journal = [[British Medical Journal]] | volume = 329 | issue = 7469 | page = 763 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.38216.714560.55 | pmid = 15385407 | pmc = 520994 }}
</ref> [[Cycling in the Netherlands|The Netherlands has been pursuing cycle friendly policies]] for decades, and around a quarter of their commuting is done by bicycle.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Rietveld | first1 = Piet | first2=Vanessa | last2=Daniel  |date=August 2004 | title = Determinants of bicycle use: do municipal policies matter? | journal = Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice | volume = 38| issue = 7 | pages = 531–550 | doi = 10.1016/j.tra.2004.05.003 | author-link = Piet Rietveld | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2004TRPA...38..531R }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fietsberaad.nl/library/repository/bestanden/Cycling%20in%20the%20Netherlands%20VenW.pdf |title= Cycling in the Netherlands |publisher    = [[Rijkswaterstaat]] (Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528100652/http://www.fietsberaad.nl/library/repository/bestanden/Cycling%20in%20the%20Netherlands%20VenW.pdf |archive-date = May 28, 2008 |url-status     = dead}}</ref>
** Promotion of more flexible work place practices. For example, a flexible workplaces pilot was undertaken in Brisbane, Australia during 2009 to test the applicability of a voluntary travel behavior change program to achieve transport system outcomes, particularly as they related to managing congestion, either through mode shift or peak spreading. During the one-month Pilot, amongst almost 900 Brisbane CBD workers across 20 private and public sector organizations, shifts of more than 30% out of the morning and afternoon peak travel was recorded.<ref>Marinelli, P. A. Cleary, N. Worthington Eyre, H. and Doonan, K. 2010. Flexible Workplaces: Achieving the worker's paradise and transport planner's dream in Brisbane, Proceedings of the 33rd Australasian Transport Research Forum, September 29-October 1, 2010, Canberra.</ref>
** [[Remote work]] encouraged through legislation and subsidies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&program=DI%20Main%20Page%20-%20News&id=4235 |title=Slow But Steady "Telework Revolution" Eyed |author=Matt Rosenberg|publisher=Cascadia Prospectus|date=September 26, 2007|access-date=October 7, 2007|archive-date=October 27, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027153140/http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&program=DI%20Main%20Page%20-%20News&id=4235|url-status=live}}</ref>
** [[Online shopping]] promotion,<ref name=rac2050>
{{cite web
 | title = Motoring Towards 2050 – Roads and Reality
 | url = http://www.racfoundation.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=535&Itemid=31
 | publisher = [[RAC foundation]]
 | url-status = dead
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090120175029/http://www.racfoundation.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=535&Itemid=31
 | archive-date = January 20, 2009
 }}
</ref><ref name=dft>{{cite web
 | title = Smarter Choices – Changing the way we travel
 | date = June 24, 2005
 | url = http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/sustainable/smarterchoices/ctwwt/
 | publisher = [[Department for Transport]]
 | access-date = April 21, 2008
 | archive-date = April 8, 2008
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080408055546/http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/sustainable/smarterchoices/ctwwt/
 | url-status = live
 }}</ref> potentially with [[Packstation|automated delivery booths]] helping to solve the [[Last mile (transportation)|last mile problem]] and reduce shopping trips made by car.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

===Traffic management===
[[File:SES Staumelder A5.JPG|thumb|Traffic congestion detector in Germany]]
Use of so-called [[intelligent transportation system]]s, which guide traffic:
* [[Traffic reporting]], via radio, [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] and [[Car App|mobile apps]], to advise road users
* [[Variable message sign]]s installed along the roadway, to advise road users<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sior.ub.edu/jspui/cris/socialimpact/socialimpact00438|title=Reducing delay due to traffic congestion|website=Social Impact Open Repository|access-date=September 5, 2017|archive-date=September 5, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905144020/http://sior.ub.edu/jspui/cris/socialimpact/socialimpact00438|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Automotive navigation system|Navigation systems]], possibly linked up to automatic traffic reporting
* [[Traffic counter]]s permanently installed, to provide real-time traffic counts
* [[Automated highway system]]s, a future idea which could reduce the safe interval between cars (required for braking in emergencies) and increase highway capacity by as much as 100% while increasing travel speeds{{Citation needed|date=September 2007}}
* [[Parking guidance and information]] systems providing dynamic advice to motorists about free parking
* [[Active traffic management]]<ref name="ha6months">{{cite web|url=http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/roads/tpm/m42activetrafficmanagement/ATM6MonthSummaryResultsforP1.pdf  |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20080306113842/http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/roads/tpm/m42activetrafficmanagement/ATM6MonthSummaryResultsforP1.pdf  |url-status=dead  |archive-date=March 6, 2008  |publisher=Department for Transport |author=Highways Agency |title=M42 Active Traffic Management Results – First Six Months |date=October 25, 2007|access-date=December 31, 2007}}</ref> system opens up UK motorway [[hard shoulder]] as an extra traffic lane; it uses CCTV and VMS to control and monitor the traffic's use of the extra lane.

===Other associated===
[[File:Road Space Requirements.png|thumb|Different modes of transport require different amounts of road space.]]
* [[School]] opening times arranged to avoid rush hour traffic (in some countries, private car school pickup and drop-off traffic are substantial percentages of peak hour traffic).{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}}
* Considerate driving behavior promotion and enforcement. Driving practices such as [[tailgating]], frequent lane changes, and impeding the flow of traffic can reduce a road's capacity and exacerbate jams. In some countries signs are placed on highways to raise awareness, while others have introduced legislation against inconsiderate driving.
* Visual barriers to prevent drivers from slowing down out of curiosity (often called "[[rubbernecking]]" in the United States). This often includes crashes, with traffic slowing down even on roadsides physically separated from the crash location. This also tends to occur at construction sites, which is why some countries have introduced rules that motorway construction has to occur behind visual barrier
* [[Speed limit]] reductions, as practiced on the [[M25 motorway]] in London. With lower speeds allowing cars to drive closer together, this increases the capacity of a road. Note that this measure is only effective if the [[Interval (time)|interval]] between cars is reduced, not the distance itself. Low intervals are generally only safe at low speeds.
* [[Lane splitting|Lane splitting/filtering]], in which some jurisdictions allow [[motorcycle]]s, [[scooter (motorcycle)|scooters]] and bicycles to travel in the space between cars, buses, and trucks.<ref>{{Cite journal | title=Glossary | url=http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/pedbimot/motorcycle/00-NHT-212-motorcycle/glossary71-72.html | journal=National Agenda for Motorcycle Safety | publisher=[[US Department of Transportation]] [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]]/[[Motorcycle Safety Foundation]] | access-date=September 18, 2010 | archive-date=April 6, 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406110515/http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/PEOPLE/injury/pedbimot/motorcycle/00-NHT-212-motorcycle/glossary71-72.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NHSTA">{{cite web |publisher=Motorcycle Glossary.com |title=Define:Lane Splitting |url=http://motorcycle-glossary.com/lane-splitting/150 |access-date=January 6, 2009 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106054119/http://motorcycle-glossary.com/lane-splitting/150 |archive-date=January 6, 2009 }}</ref>
* Reduction of road freight avoiding problems such as double parking with innovative solutions including cargo bicycles and Gothenburg's Stadsleveransens.<ref>{{cite web|title=Gridlock and Traffic Congestion in Cities – Is This the Solution?|work=Go Supply Chain |date=April 19, 2017 |url=https://www.gosupplychain.com/blog/gridlock-and-traffic-congestion-in-cities.html|access-date=April 26, 2017|archive-date=April 27, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427003737/https://www.gosupplychain.com/blog/gridlock-and-traffic-congestion-in-cities.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Reducing the quantity of cars that are on the road,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/bike-blog/2019/jul/03/ten-common-myths-about-bike-lanes-and-why-theyre-wrong |title=Ten common myths about bike lanes – and why they're wrong |website=[[TheGuardian.com]] |date=July 3, 2019 |access-date=September 5, 2020 |archive-date=August 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808131140/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/bike-blog/2019/jul/03/ten-common-myths-about-bike-lanes-and-why-theyre-wrong |url-status=live }}</ref> i.e. through [[proof-of-parking]] requirements, [[circulation plan]]s, [[corporate car sharing]], [[Parallel parking#Legality|bans on on-street parking]] or by increasing the costs of [[car ownership]]