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===Asia=== ====Central Asia==== {{Main|Kurgan}} The word [[kurgan]] is of [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] origin, and derives from [[Proto-Turkic]] *Kur- ("to erect (a building), to establish"). In Ukraine and Russia, there are royal kurgans of [[Varangian]] chieftains, such as the [[Black Grave]] in Ukrainian [[Chernihiv]] (excavated in the 19th century), [[Oleg of Novgorod|Oleg]]'s Grave in Russian [[Staraya Ladoga]], and vast, intricate [[Shum-gora|Rurik's Hill]] near Russian [[Novgorod]]. Other important kurgans are found in Ukraine and South Russia and are associated with much more ancient [[steppe]] peoples, notably the [[Scythian]]s (e.g., Chortomlyk, [[Pazyryk culture|Pazyryk]]) and early [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-Europeans]] (e.g., [[Ipatovo kurgan]]) The steppe cultures found in Ukraine and South Russia naturally continue into [[Central Asia]], in particular [[Kazakhstan]]. It is constructed over a grave, often characterized by containing a single human body along with grave vessels, weapons and horses. Originally in use on the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]], kurgans spread into much of [[Central Asia]] and [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]], [[Southeast Europe|Southeast]], [[Western Europe|Western]] and [[Northern Europe]] during the 3rd millennium BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/kurgan |title=Kurgan |author=Random House Unabridged Dictionary |author-link=Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary |year=2019 |website=[[Dictionary.com]] |publisher=Random House }}</ref> The earliest kurgans date to the 4th millennium BC in the Caucasus,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kipfer |first=Barbara Ann |author-link=Barbara Ann Kipfer |year=2000 |title=Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology |location=New York |publisher=Kluwer Academic/Plenum |isbn=0-306-46158-7 |page=291}}</ref> and researchers associate these with the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-Europeans]].<ref>{{Cite book|editor1-last=Mallory |editor1-first=James P. |editor1-link=J. P. Mallory |editor2-last=Adams |editor2-first=Douglas Q. |editor2-link=Douglas Q. Adams |title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture |year=1997 |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |isbn=1-884964-98-2 |page=339}}</ref> Kurgans were built in the [[Eneolithic]], Bronze, Iron, [[classical antiquity|Antiquity]] and [[Middle Age]]s, with ancient traditions still active in Southern [[Siberia]] and Central Asia. ====Near East==== =====Turkey===== [[File:Gordion82.JPG|thumb|The "Tomb of [[Midas]]" in Gordion, dated 740 BC.]] On the [[Anatolia]]n peninsula, there are several sites where one can find the biggest specimens of these artificial mounds throughout the world. Three of these sites are especially important. [[Bin Tepe]] (and other [[Lydia]]n mounds of the Aegean inland), [[Phrygia]]n mounds in [[Gordium]] (Central Anatolia), and the famous [[Commagene]] tumulus on Mount [[Nemrut (mountain)|Nemrut]] (Southeastern Anatolia). This is the most important of the enumerated sites with the number of specimens it has and with the dimensions of certain among them. It is in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] inland of Turkey. The site is called "Bintepeler" or "Bin Tepe" (a thousand mounds in Turkish) and it is in the northwest of [[Salihli]] district of [[Manisa Province|Manisa province]]. The site is very close to the southern shoreline of [[Lake Marmara]] (Lake Gyges or Gygaea). Bin Tepeler is a Lydian [[necropolis]] that dates back to 7th and 6th centuries BC. These mounds are called "the pyramids of Anatolia", as a giant specimen among them is 355 metres in diameter, 1115 metres in perimeter and 69 metres high. According to [[Herodotus]], this giant tumulus belongs to the famous Lydian King [[Alyattes of Lydia|Alyattes]] who ruled between 619 and 560 BC. There is also another mound belonging to King [[Gyges of Lydia|Gyges]]. The Gyges mound was excavated but the burial chamber has not been found yet. On this site, there are 75 tumuli dating back to Lydian period that belong to the nobility. A large number of smaller artificial mounds can also be observed on the site. There are other Lydian tumuli sites around [[Eşme]] district of [[Uşak Province|Uşak province]]. Certain mounds on these sites had been plundered by raiders in the late 1960s, and the Lydian treasures found in their burial chambers were smuggled to the United States, which later returned them to Turkish authorities after negotiations. These artifacts are now exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Uşak. [[File:TumMMWPintro.jpg|thumb|Tumulus MM, Gordion, at sunset]] [[Gordium]] (Gordion) was the capital of the ancient kingdom of [[Phrygia]]. Its ruins are in the immediate vicinity of [[Polatlı]], near the Turkish capital [[Ankara]]. At this site, approximately 80–90 tumuli date back to the Phrygian, [[History of Persia|Persian]] and [[Hellenistic]] periods. Around 35 tumuli have been excavated so far, ranging in date from the 8th century BC to the 3rd or 2nd century BC. The biggest tumulus at the site is believed to have covered the burial of the famous Phrygian King [[Midas]] or that of his father. This mound, called Tumulus MM (for "Midas Mound"), was excavated in 1957 by a team from the University of Pennsylvania Museum, led by [[Rodney Young (archaeologist)|Rodney Young]] and his [[Graduate Group in the Art and Archaeology of the Mediterranean World|graduate students]]. Among the many fine [[bronze]] artifacts recovered from the wooden burial chamber were 170 bronze vessels, including numerous "omphalos bowls", and more than 180 bronze "Phrygian [[fibula]]e" (ancient safety pins). The [[Gordion Furniture and Wooden Artifacts|wooden furniture]] found in the tomb is especially noteworthy, as wood seldom survives from archaeological contexts: the collection included nine tables, one of them elaborately carved and inlaid, and two ceremonial serving stands inlaid with religious symbols and geometric patterns. Important bronze and wooden artifacts were also found in other tumulus burials at the site. Mount [[Nemrut (mountain)|Nemrut]] is 86 km in the east of [[Adıyaman]] province of [[Turkey]]. It is very close to [[Kahta]] district of the same province. The mountain has, at its peak, 3050 metres of height above sea level. A tumulus that dates to the 1st century BC is at the peak of the mountain. This artificial mound has 150 metres in diameter and a height of 50 metres, which was originally 55 metres. It belongs to the [[Commagene]] King [[Antiochus I Theos of Commagene]] who ruled between 69 and 40 BC. This tumulus is made of broken stone pieces, which renders excavation attempts almost impossible. The tumulus is surrounded by ceremonial terraces in the east, west, and north. The east and west terraces have tremendous statues (reaching 8 to 10 meters in height) and bas reliefs of gods and goddesses from the Commagene [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheon]] where divine figures used to embody the [[Persian mythology|Persian]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] perceptions together. =====Bahrain===== {{Main article|Dilmun Burial Mounds|Dilmun}} [[File:Burial Mounds in Bahrain 1918.jpg|thumb|[[Dilmun Burial Mounds]] in Bahrain.]] The Dilmun Burial Mounds comprising [[necropolis]] areas on the main island of [[Bahrain]] dating back to the [[Dilmun|Dilmun civilization]] and the [[Umm al-Nar culture]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/news/seven-cultural-sites-inscribed-unescos-world-heritage-list|title=Seven cultural sites inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List|website=UNESCO|date=6 July 2019}}</ref> Each of the tumuli is composed of a central stone chamber that is enclosed by a low ring-wall and covered by earth and gravel. The size of the mounds varies, but the majority of them measure 15 by 30 ft (4.5 by 9 m) in diameter and are 3–6 ft (1–2 m) high. The smaller mounds usually contain only one chamber. The chambers are usually rectangular with one or two alcoves at the northeast end. Occasionally there are additional pairs of alcoves along the middle of the larger chambers.<ref name=dilmun2/> Although the chambers usually contained one burial each, some contain several people and the secondary chambers often contain none. The deceased were generally laid with their heads in the alcove end of the chamber and lying on their right sides. The bodies were accompanied by few items. There were a few pieces of pottery and occasionally shell or stone stamp seals, baskets sealed with asphalt, ivory objects, stone jars, and copper weapons. The skeletons are representative of both sexes with a life expectancy of approximately 40 years. Babies were generally buried at and outside the ring-wall. The average number of children per family was 1.6 persons.<ref name=dilmun2>Crawford, 2016, [https://books.google.com/books?id=To2oDQAAQBAJ&dq=Dilmun+Burial+Mounds&pg=PT98 Dilmun Temple At Saar].</ref> =====Palestine-Israel===== [[File:JerusalemTumulus2.jpg|thumb|Jerusalem tumulus #2 in 2004]] A tumulus forms the center of the ancient megalithic structure of [[Rujm el-Hiri]] in the [[Golan Heights]]. ''[[Rujm]]'' in Arabic can mean tumulus, cairn or stone heap. Near the western city limits of modern [[Jerusalem]], 19 tumuli have been documented (Amiran, 1958). Though first noticed in the 1870s by early surveyors, the first one to be formally documented was Tumulus #2 in 1923 by [[William Foxwell Albright]], and the most recent one (Tumulus #4) was excavated by [[Gabriel Barkay]] in 1983. These tumuli are sometimes associated with the [[Kings of Judah|Judean kings]] who ruled Jerusalem, but no such connection has yet been substantiated, nor have any inscriptions naming any specific Judean king been excavated from a tumulus. More than half of these [[Israelites|ancient Israelite]] structures have now been threatened or obliterated by modern construction projects, including Tumulus #4, which was excavated hastily in a salvage operation. The most noteworthy finds from this dig were two [[LMLK seal]] impressions and two other handles with associated concentric circle incisions, all of which suggests this tumulus belonged to either King [[Hezekiah]]{{sfn|Barkay|2003|p=68}} or his son [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]].{{sfn|Grena|2004|p=326}} ====South Asia==== {{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=280 | image1 = Megalithic burial mound, India.jpg | image2 = Jawargi Megalith 1873.jpg | footer = Types of Megalithic mound burials with chambers, India. }} =====India===== Round mound burials are associated with [[megalith]]ic burials in India.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=M. Menon |first1=Srikumar |title=The 'Round Mound' and its Structural Requirements: A Possible Scenario for the Evolution of the Form of the Stupa |journal=National Institute of Advanced Studies |date=16 September 2016 |url=http://eprints.nias.res.in/1225/1/2016-SrikumarMenon-JMSA.pdf |access-date=16 September 2016}}</ref> Most megalithic mounds with chambers found today have been disturbed over centuries and their original form was badly disturbed. Examination of other lesser disturbed monuments shows that the chamber was surrounded by a packing of earth, chipped rubble blocks and covered on the outside with inclined stone slabs whose top ends rested on the periphery of the capstone creating a mound.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=M. Menon |first1=Srikumar |title=The 'Round Mound' and its Structural Requirements: A Possible Scenario for the Evolution of the Form of the Stupa |journal=National Institute of Advanced Studies |date=16 September 2016 |url=http://eprints.nias.res.in/1225/1/2016-SrikumarMenon-JMSA.pdf |access-date=16 September 2016}}</ref> These pre-historic megalithic mound burials with chambers likely influenced later devolvement of mound burials called "''[[Stupa]]''" mounds, Similarities of the stupa with early megalithic mounds are noted with structural and functional features of the stupa (including its general mound shape and the practice of surrounding stupas with a stone, relic chamber, or wooden railing) with both pre-Mauryan era cairns and pre-historic megalithic "round mound" burials with chambers found in India, which likely represents a ''"proto-stupa"''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=M. Menon |first1=Srikumar |title=The "Round Mound" and its Structural Requirements: A Possible Scenario for the Evolution of the Form of the Stupa |journal=National Institute of Advanced Studies |date=16 September 2016 |url=http://eprints.nias.res.in/1225/1/2016-SrikumarMenon-JMSA.pdf |access-date=16 September 2016}}</ref> In [[Dholavira]], an archeological site associated with [[Indus Valley Civilization]], there are several large and high ''"hemispherical monuments"'' mounds with brick masonry found with burial chambers inside. Among them, Tumulus-1 and Tumulus-2 mounds were excavated. They consist of a deep and wide rock-cut chamber, surrounded on the ground by a massive [[circle|circular]] mud-brick structure made in two tiers, and filled in and topped with random earth to form a domical shape.<ref name="academia.edu">{{cite journal |last1=Singh Bisht |first1=Ravindra |title=How the Harappans Honoured Death at Dholavira – Chapter VI. Hemispherical monument or tumulus |journal=Archaeological Survey of India |pages=271–284 |url=https://www.academia.edu/10187944 |access-date=21 March 2011}}</ref> There is also evidence of plastering on the exterior of Tumulus-1 mound, bearing a 10- mm thick plaster of pinkish-white clay over brick masonry.<ref name="academia.edu"/> The offering in Tumulus-1 consisted of one full necklace of steatite stringed in a copper wire with hooks for interlocking, solid gold bangle with incurved ends, ageta and gold beads, along with a considerable assemblage of pottery.<ref name="academia.edu"/> Another type of mound burial is [[Maidam]] in [[Assam]], India. The [[Ahom kingdom]] in medieval [[Assam]] built [[octagon]]al-shaped tumuli called [[Maidam]]s for their kings and high officials. The kings were buried in a hillock at [[Charaideo]] in Sibsagar district of Assam, whereas other Maidams are found scattered more widely.<ref>{{cite web| last = ASI| title = Group of Maidams, Charaideo| publisher = Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India| url = http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_assam_maidams.asp| year = 2007| accessdate = 2007-11-30| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090410124830/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_assam_maidams.asp| archive-date = 2009-04-10| url-status = dead}}</ref> =====Pakistan===== The ''[[damb]]'' was a type of mound, or small stone structure, found in [[Balochistan]], including the coastal areas of [[Makran]]. ====East Asia==== =====China===== The [[Chinese pyramids]] house the remains of some of China's former [[emperor of China|emperors]]. Before the expansion of [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] [[Chinese culture|culture]] through the region, many hundreds of tumuli were also constructed by the "[[Baiyue]]" peoples of the Yangtze Valley and southeastern China. =====Japan===== [[File:NintokuTomb Aerial photograph 2007.jpg|thumb|left|Daisen Kofun, the largest of all kofun]] [[File:Hashihaka-kofun zenkei.JPG|thumb|[[Hashihaka Kofun]], [[Sakurai, Nara]], 3rd century [[Anno Domini|AD]]]] In [[Japan]], powerful leaders built tumuli, known as ''[[kofun]]''. The [[Kofun period]] of Japanese history takes its name from these burial mounds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sitereports.nabunken.go.jp/17038|title=赤城山南麓の古墳|last=前橋市教育委員会|date=29 February 2016|website=Comprehensive Database of Archaeological Site Reports in Japan|access-date=2 September 2016}}</ref> The largest is Daisen-ryo Kofun, or more commonly Nintoku-ryo Kofun, with a length of 840 metres. In addition to other shapes, kofun includes a keyhole shape, typically seen in Daisen Kofun. Foreign museums possess some grave goods. =====Korea===== {{see also | Cheonmachong |l1=Cheonmachong, the Heavenly Horse Tomb}} [[File:Burial-Mounds-at-GyeongJu.jpg|thumb|Burial mounds of the Silla kings in Korea]] The first burial mounds in Korea were [[dolmens]], which contained material from cultures of the 1st millennium AD, such as bronze-ware, pottery, and other symbols of the society elite. The most famous tumuli in Korea, dating around 300 AD, are those left behind by the Korean [[Baekje]], [[Goguryeo]] ([[Kogyuro]]/[[Koguryo]]), [[Silla]] and [[Gaya confederacy|Gaya]] states and are clustered around ancient capital cities in modern-day [[Pyongyang]], [[Ji'an, Jilin]], [[Seoul]] and [[Gyeongju]]. The Goguryeo tombs, shaped like pyramids, are famous for the well-preserved wall murals like the ones at [[Anak Tomb No.3|Anak Tomb No. 3]], which depict the culture and artistry of the people. The base of the tomb of King [[Gwanggaeto]] is 85 meters on each side, half of the size of the Great Pyramids.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sANORB_MSRUC&q=korean+tombs&pg=PA213|title=The Archaeology of Korea|last=Nelson|first=Sarah M.|date=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521407830}}</ref> Goguryeo Silla tombs are most noted for the fabulous offerings that have been excavated such as delicate golden crowns and glassware and beads that probably made their way to Korea via the [[Silk Road]].
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