Editing Turquoise (section)

== History of use ==
[[File:Chacoan turquoise pendant.jpg|left|thumb|Trade in turquoise crafts, such as this freeform pendant dating from 1000 to 1040, is believed to have brought the [[Ancestral Pueblo]] people of the [[Chaco Canyon]] great wealth.]]
[[File:Turqoise nose ornament.jpg|right|thumb|[[Moche culture|Moche]] turquoise nose ornament. [[Larco Museum]] Collection, Lima, Peru]]
[[File:Drevnosti RG v3 ill094 - Palash.jpg|left|thumb|Backswords, inlaid with turquoise. Russia, 17th century]]
[[File:Xiuhtecuhtli (mask).jpg|right|thumb|Turquoise mosaic mask of [[Xiuhtecuhtli]], the [[Aztec]] god of fire. The Aztecs differentiated turquoise based on quality: ''xihuitl'', a more mundane version used for decoration such as in mosaics, and ''teoxihuitl'', a special version embued with qualities of ''[[Teotl]]'' and valued for its beauty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bassett |first1=Molly H. |title=The fate of earthly things : Aztec gods and god-bodies |date=2015 |location=Austin |isbn=9780292760882 |page=105 |edition=First}}</ref>]]
[[File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg|right|thumb|The iconic gold burial mask of [[Tutankhamun]], inlaid with turquoise, [[lapis lazuli]], [[carnelian]] and coloured [[glass]]]]

The pastel shades of turquoise have endeared it to many great cultures of antiquity: it has adorned the rulers of [[Ancient Egypt]], the [[Aztec]]s (and possibly other Pre-Columbian [[Mesoamerica]]ns), [[Greater Iran|Persia]], [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Indus Valley civilization|Indus Valley]], and to some extent in ancient [[China]] since at least the [[Shang dynasty]].<ref name="NGA">{{cite web |publisher=National Gallery of Art |location=Washington, DC |url=http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/china1999/096_053.htm |title=China Exhibition |year=1999 |access-date=2006-09-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060930014758/http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/china1999/096_053.htm |archive-date=2006-09-30 }}</ref> Despite being one of the oldest gems, probably first introduced to [[Europe]] (through [[Turkey]]) with other [[Silk Road]] novelties, turquoise did not become important as an ornamental stone in the West until the 14th century, following a decline in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]'s influence which allowed the use of turquoise in secular jewellery. It was apparently unknown in [[India]] until the [[Mughal empire|Mughal]] period, and unknown in [[Japan]] until the 18th century. A common belief shared by many of these civilizations held that turquoise possessed certain prophylactic qualities; it was thought to change colour with the wearer's health and protect him or her from untoward forces.

The Aztecs viewed turquoise as an embodiment of fire and gave it properties such as heat and smokiness. They inlaid turquoise, together with [[gold]], [[quartz]], [[malachite]], [[jet (lignite)|jet]], [[jade]], [[Coral (precious)|coral]], and [[Exoskeleton|shells]], into provocative (and presumably ceremonial{{Clarify|date=November 2019}}) [[mosaic]] objects such as [[mask]]s (some with a [[human skull]] as their base), [[knife|knives]], and [[shield]]s. Natural [[resin]]s, [[bitumen]] and [[wax]] were used to bond the turquoise to the objects' base material; this was usually [[wood]], but [[bone]] and shell were also used. Like the Aztecs, the [[Pueblo people|Pueblo]], [[Navajo Nation|Navajo]] and [[Apache (tribe)|Apache]] tribes cherished turquoise for its amuletic use; the latter tribe believe the stone to afford the [[Archery|archer]] dead aim. In Navajo culture it is used for "a spiritual protection and blessing."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-03 |title=How turquoise became synonymous with New Mexico |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/how-turquoise-became-synonymous-with-new-mexico |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220203152409/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/how-turquoise-became-synonymous-with-new-mexico |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 3, 2022 |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=Travel |language=en}}</ref> Among these peoples turquoise was used in [[mosaic]] inlay, in sculptural works, and was fashioned into toroidal beads and freeform pendants. The [[Ancestral Puebloans]] (Anasazi) of the [[Chaco Canyon]] and surrounding region are believed to have prospered greatly from their production and trading of turquoise objects. The distinctive [[silver]] jewellery produced by the Navajo and other Southwestern Native American tribes today is a rather modern development, thought to date from around 1880 as a result of European influences.

In Persia, turquoise was the ''de facto'' national stone for millennia, extensively used to decorate objects (from [[turban]]s to [[bridle]]s), [[mosque]]s, and other important buildings both inside and out,{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} such as the [[Shah Mosque (Isfahan)|Medresseh-i Shah Husein Mosque]] of [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]]. The Persian style and use of turquoise was later brought to [[India]] following the establishment of the Mughal Empire there, its influence seen in high purity [[gold]] jewellery (together with [[ruby]] and [[diamond]]) and in such buildings as the [[Taj Mahal]]. Persian turquoise was often [[engraving|engraved]] with devotional words in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] script which was then inlaid with gold.

[[Cabochon]]s of imported turquoise, along with coral, was (and still is) used extensively in the silver and gold jewellery of [[Tibet]] and [[Mongolia]], where a greener hue is said to be preferred. Most of the pieces made today, with turquoise usually roughly polished into irregular cabochons set simply in silver, are meant for inexpensive export to Western markets and are probably not accurate representations of the original style.

The [[Ancient Egypt]]ian use of turquoise stretches back as far as the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] and possibly earlier; however, probably the most well-known pieces incorporating the gem are those recovered from [[Tutankhamun]]'s tomb, most notably the [[Pharaoh]]'s iconic burial mask which was liberally inlaid with the stone. It also adorned [[Finger ring|rings]] and great sweeping [[necklace]]s called ''[[pectoral (Ancient Egypt)|pectorals]]''. Set in gold, the gem was fashioned into beads, used as inlay, and often carved in a [[scarab (artifact)|scarab]] motif, accompanied by [[carnelian]], [[lapis lazuli]], and in later pieces, coloured [[glass]]. Turquoise, associated with the goddess [[Hathor]], was so liked by the Ancient Egyptians that it became (arguably{{Clarify|date=November 2019}}) the first gemstone to be imitated, the fair structure created by an artificial glazed [[ceramic]] product known as [[Egyptian faience|faience]].

The [[France|French]] conducted [[archaeology|archaeological]] excavations of Egypt from the mid-19th century through the early 20th. These excavations, including that of Tutankhamun's tomb, created great public interest in the western world, subsequently influencing jewellery, [[architecture]], and [[art]] of the time. Turquoise, already favoured for its pastel shades since around 1810, was a staple of [[Egyptian Revival]] pieces. In contemporary Western use, turquoise is most often encountered cut ''[[en cabochon]]'' in silver rings, bracelets, often in the Native American style, or as tumbled or roughly hewn beads in chunky necklaces. Lesser material may be carved into [[Fetishism|fetishes]], such as those crafted by the [[Zuni people|Zuni]]. While strong sky blues remain superior in value, mottled green and yellowish material is popular with [[artisan]]s.