Editing Vampire (section)

=== Medieval and later European folklore ===
{{main|Vampire folklore by region}}
[[File:Execution of the Vampire by René de Moraine.png|alt=See caption|thumb|Lithograph showing townsfolk burning the exhumed skeleton of an alleged vampire]]
Many myths surrounding vampires originated during the [[medieval period]]. With the arrival of [[Christianity]] in [[Greece]], and other parts of [[Europe]], the vampire "began to take on decidedly Christian characteristics."<ref name="Hansen2011">{{cite book|author=Regina Hansen|title=Roman Catholicism in Fantastic Film: Essays on Belief, Spectacle, Ritual and Imagery|date=3 May 2011|publisher=[[McFarland & Company]]|language=English|isbn=978-0786464746|quote=After the arrival of Christianity in Greece, however, the vampire began to take on decidedly Christian characteristics. The vampire was now no longer a demon from a supernatural realm but a reanimated corpse, a dead person who retained a semblance of life and could leave its grave-much in the same way that Jesus had arisen after His death and burial and appeared before His followers. The transformation of vampire myths to include Christian elements happened throughout Europe; as various regions converted to Christianity, their vampires also became "Christianized" (Beresford 42, 44–51).}}</ref> As various regions of the continent [[converted to Christianity]], the vampire was viewed as "a dead person who retained a semblance of life and could leave its grave-much in the same way that Jesus had risen after His death and burial and appeared before His followers."<ref name="Hansen2011"/> In the [[Middle Ages]], the [[Christian Church]]es reinterpreted vampires from their previous folk existence into minions of [[Satan]], and used an [[allegory]] to communicate a doctrine to [[Christians]]: "Just as a vampire takes a sinner's very spirit into itself by drinking his blood, so also can a righteous Christian by drinking Christ's blood take the divine spirit into himself."<ref name="Joshi2010">{{cite book|author= S. T. Joshi=|title=Encyclopædia of the Vampire: The Living Dead in Myth, Legend, and Popular Culture|date=4 November 2010|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|language=English|isbn=978-0313378331|quote=The church had by this time co-opted vampires from their previous folk existence and reinterpreted them as minions of the Christian devil, so it was an easy enough analogy to draw: Just as a vampire takes a sinner's very spirit into itself by drinking his blood, so also can a righteous Christian by drinking Christ's blood take the divine spirit into himself.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author= Regina Hansen|title=Roman Catholicism in Fantastic Film: Essays on Belief, Spectacle, Ritual and Imagery|date=3 May 2011|publisher=[[McFarland & Company]]|language=English|isbn=978-0786464746|quote=Perhaps the strongest link between vampires and Christianity is the importance of blood in the Christian, especially the Roman Catholic, tradition. Just as the vampire must consume blood in order to continue its unnaturally eternal life, so Christians must consume the blood of Jesus to be granted salvation and life after death.}}</ref> The interpretation of vampires under the Christian Churches established connotations that are still associated in the vampire genre today.<ref name="LarssonSteiner2011">{{cite book|author= Mariah Larsson, Ann Steiner|title=Interdisciplinary Approaches to Twilight: Studies in Fiction, Media and a Contemporary Cultural Experience|date=1 December 2011|publisher=Nordic Academic Press|language=English|isbn=978-9185509638|quote=The fear of vampirism embodied in these early conceptions was used by the Church in order to impose its fundamental values on soviety. The Church therefore changed some of the typical vampire traits and gave them more religious connotations that are still very much in evidence in the vampire genre today. For example, the destruction of the vampire became a religious rite; crucifixes and holy water bestowed protection; and drinking the blood of a sinner strengthened the power of the Devil, while taking Communion afforded the communicant protection. Besides their roots in folklore and the influence of Christianity, vampire traits were shaped in the development of vampire literature.}}</ref> For example, the "ability of the cross to hurt and ward off vampires is distinctly due to its Christian association."<ref name="Stevenson2003">{{cite book|author= Gregory Stevenson|title=Televised Morality: The Case of Buffy the Vampire Slayer|year=2003|publisher=[[University Press of America]]|language=English|isbn=0761828338|quote=If so, then the ability of the cross to hurt and ward off vampires is distinctly due to its Christian association.}}</ref><ref name="Holte1997">{{cite book|author= James Craig Holte|title=Dracula in the Dark: The Dracula Film Adaptations|year=1997|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|language=English|isbn=0313292159|quote=Christian belief played an important part in the development of vampire lore. According to Montague Summers, who describes the Christian position in detail in ''The Vampire: His Kith and Kin'', Christianity accepts the existence of vampires and sees the power of the devil behind their creation. Since vampires are servants of Satan, the Church has power over them. Thus vampires flee from and can be destroyed by the crucifix, relics of saints, the sign of the cross, holy water, and above all, a consecrated host.}}</ref>

The 12th-century British historians and chroniclers [[Walter Map]] and [[William of Newburgh]] recorded accounts of revenants,{{sfn|Cohen|1989|pp=271–274}}<ref>{{cite web|author=William of Newburgh|author2=Paul Halsall|author-link=William of Newburgh|title=Book 5, Chapter 22–24|website=Historia rerum Anglicarum|publisher=Fordham University|year=2000|access-date=16 October 2007|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/williamofnewburgh-five.html|archive-date=19 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219150159/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/williamofnewburgh-five.html|url-status=live}}</ref> though records in English legends of vampiric beings after this date are scant.{{sfn|Jones|1931|p=121}} The [[Scandinavian folklore|Old Norse]] ''[[draugr]]'' is another medieval example of an undead creature with similarities to vampires.<ref>{{cite journal | first=Ármann | last=Jakobsson |year=2009 | title=The Fearless Vampire Killers: A Note about the Icelandic ''Draugr'' and Demonic Contamination in ''Grettis Saga'' | journal=Folklore | issue=120 | page=309}}</ref> Vampiric beings were rarely written about in Jewish literature; the 16th-century rabbi [[David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra]] (Radbaz) wrote of an uncharitable old woman whose body was unguarded and unburied for three days after she died and rose as a vampiric entity, killing hundreds of people. He linked this event to the lack of a ''[[shemira|shmirah]]'' (guarding) after death as the corpse could be a vessel for evil spirits.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Soul, Evil Spirits, and the Undead: Vampires, Death, and Burial in Jewish Folklore and Law|last1=Epstein|first1=Saul|last2=Robinson|first2=Sara Libby|journal=Preternature: Critical and Historical Studies on the Preternatural|year=2012|volume=1|issue=2|pages=232–51|doi=10.5325/preternature.1.2.0232|issn=2161-2188}}</ref>

In 1645, the Greek librarian of the Vatican, [[Leo Allatius]], produced the first methodological description of the Balkan beliefs in vampires (Greek: vrykolakas) in his work ''De Graecorum hodie quorundam opinationibus'' ("On certain modern opinions among the Greeks").<ref>{{cite book| last = Melton| first= J. Gordon | title= The Vampire Book: The encyclopedia of the Undead | pages=9–10 | isbn=978-1-57859-350-7| publisher= Visible Ink Press | year= 2010}}</ref> Vampires properly originating in folklore were widely reported from Eastern Europe in the late 17th and 18th centuries. These tales formed the basis of the vampire legend that later entered Germany and England, where they were subsequently embellished and popularized.{{sfn|Barber|1988|pp=5–9}} An early recording of the time came from the region of [[Istria]] in modern [[Croatia]], in 1672; Local reports described a panic among the villagers inspired by the belief that [[Jure Grando]] had become a vampire after dying in 1656, drinking blood from victims and sexually harassing his widow. The village leader ordered a stake to be driven through his heart. Later, his corpse was also beheaded.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bohn |first1=Thomas M. |title=The Vampire: Origins of a European Myth |date=2019 |publisher=Berghahn Books |location=Cologne |isbn=978-1-78920-293-9 |pages=47–49}}</ref><!-- cites previous 3 sentences -->

[[File:Tractat von dem Kauen und Schmatzen der Todten in Gräbern 002.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Première page du ''Tractat von dem Kauen und Schmatzen der Todten in Gräbern'' (1734), ouvrage de vampirologie de Michael Ranft|Title page of ''treatise on the chewing and smacking of the dead in graves'' (1734), a book on vampirology by [[Michael Ranft]]]]
From 1679, Philippe Rohr devotes an essay to the dead who chew their shrouds in their graves, a subject resumed by Otto in 1732, and then by [[Michael Ranft]] in 1734. The subject was based on the observation that when digging up graves, it was discovered that some corpses had at some point either devoured the interior fabric of their coffin or their own limbs.<ref name=marigny93>{{cite book|last1=Marigny|first1=Jean|title=Sang pour Sang, Le Réveil des Vampires, Gallimard, coll|date=1993|isbn=978-2-07-053203-2|pages=50–52|publisher=Gallimard }}</ref> Ranft described in his treatise of a tradition in some parts of Germany, that to prevent the dead from masticating they placed a mound of dirt under their chin in the coffin, placed a piece of money and a stone in the mouth, or tied a handkerchief tightly around the throat.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Calmet|first1=Augustin|title=Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants: of Hungary, Moravia, et al. The Complete Volumes I & II. 2015|date=1751|isbn=978-1-5331-4568-0|pages=442–443|title-link=Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants|publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform }}</ref> In 1732 an anonymous writer writing as "the doctor Weimar" discusses the non-putrefaction of these creatures, from a theological point of view.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lecouteux|first1=Claude|title=Historie des vampires: Autopsie d'un mythe|date=1993|publisher=Imago|location=Paris|isbn=978-2-911416-29-3|pages=9–10}}</ref> In 1733, Johann Christoph Harenberg wrote a general treatise on vampirism and the [[Marquis d'Argens]] cites local cases. Theologians and clergymen also address the topic.<ref name=marigny93/>

Some theological disputes arose. The non-decay of vampires' bodies could recall the incorruption of the bodies of the saints of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. Indeed, vampires were traditionally considered highly problematic within Christianity, as their apparent immortal existence ran against the Christian belief that all true believers may look forward to an eternal existence with body and soul as they were [[resurrection|resurrected]], but only at the end of time when Jesus [[Last Judgment|returns to judge the living and the dead]]. Those who are resurrected as immortal before this are thus in no way part of the divine plan of salvation. The imperfect state of the vampire body and how they, in spite of their immortal nature, still needed to feed of the blood of the living, further reflected the problematic aspect of the vampires. Contrary to how the incorruptible saints foreshadowed the immortality promised all true Christians at the end of time, the immortality of the undead vampires was thus not a sign of salvation, but of perdition.<ref name=Endsjø>{{cite book|last=Endsjø|first=Dag Øistein|title=Flesh and Bones Forever: A History of Immortality|year=2023|publisher=Apocryphile Press|location=Hannacroix|isbn=978-1-958061-36-7|pages=178–179}}</ref> The unholy dimension of vampirism may also be reflected in how, in parts of Russia, the very word [[heretic]], ''eretik'', was synonymous with a vampire. Whoever denied God or his commandments became an ''eretik'' after his death, the improperly immortal figure that wandered the night in search of people to feed on.<ref>Felix J. Oinas 1978. "Heretics as vampires and demons in Russia" in The Slavic and East European Journal 22:4 (1978):433</ref> A paragraph on vampires was included in the second edition (1749) of ''De servorum Dei beatificatione et sanctorum canonizatione'', On the [[beatification]] of the servants of God and on [[canonization]] of the blessed, written by Prospero Lambertini ([[Pope Benedict XIV]]).<ref>{{cite book|author=Lambertini, P.|year=1749|title=De servorum Dei beatificatione et sanctorum canonizatione|volume=Pars prima|chapter= XXXI|pages=323–24}}</ref> In his opinion, while the [[incorruptibility|incorruption]] of the bodies of saints was the effect of a divine intervention, all the phenomena attributed to vampires were purely natural or the fruit of "imagination, terror and fear". In other words, vampires did not exist.<ref>{{cite journal|author=de Ceglia F.P.|title=The Archbishop's Vampires. Giuseppe Davanzati's Dissertation and the Reaction of Scientific Italian Catholicism to the Moravian Events|journal= Archives Internationales d'Histoire des Sciences|volume=61|issue=166/167|year=2011|pages=487–510|doi=10.1484/J.ARIHS.5.101493}}</ref>

====18th-century vampire controversy====
[[File:Dom Augustin Calmet.jpeg|thumb|upright|right|[[Dom Augustine Calmet]] (1750)]]
In the early 18th century, despite the decline of many popular folkloric beliefs during the [[Age of Enlightenment]], there was a dramatic increase in the popular belief in vampires, resulting in a mass hysteria throughout much of Europe.{{sfn|Cohen|1989|pp=271–274}} The panic began with an outbreak of alleged vampire attacks in [[East Prussia]] in 1721 and in the [[Habsburg monarchy]] from 1725 to 1734, which spread to other localities. The first infamous vampire case involved the corpses of [[Petar Blagojević]] from Serbia. Blagojević was reported to have died at the age of 62, but allegedly returned after his death asking his son for food. When the son refused, he was found dead the following day. Blagojević supposedly returned and attacked some neighbours who died from loss of blood.{{sfn|Barber|1988|pp=5–9}}

In the second case, [[Miloš Čečar]], an ex-soldier-turned-farmer who allegedly was attacked by a vampire years before, died while [[hay]]ing. After his death, people began to die in the surrounding area; it was widely believed that Miloš had returned to prey on the neighbours.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283318599|title=Vampire Evolution|last=Jøn|first=A. Asbjørn|date=2003|journal=METAphor|access-date=20 November 2015|issue=3|page=20|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112222202/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283318599_Vampire_Evolution|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Barber|1988|pp=15–21}}

The Blagojević and Čečar incidents were well-documented. Government officials examined the bodies, wrote case reports, and published books throughout Europe.{{sfn|Barber|1988|pp=15–21}} The problem was exacerbated by rural epidemics of so-called vampire attacks, undoubtedly caused by the higher amount of superstition that was present in village communities, with locals digging up bodies and in some cases, staking them.{{sfn|Hoyt|1984|p=101-106}} Even government officials engaged in the hunting and staking of vampires.{{sfn|Barber|1988|pp=5–9}}

The hysteria, commonly referred to as the "vampire controversy,"<ref name="Melton1994">{{cite encyclopedia |entry=Vampire |title=The Vampire Book |author=J. Gordon Melton |publisher=Visible Ink Press |year=1994 |page=630 |url=https://archive.org/details/vampirebookencyc0000melt/page/630 |quote=the vampire controversy of the 1730s [p.467] ... the eighteenth-century vampire controversy [p. 630]}}</ref> continued for a generation. At least sixteen contemporary treatises discussed the theological and philosophical implications of the vampire epidemic.<ref name="Frayling1978">{{cite book |chapter=From the orang-utan to the vampire: towards an anthropology of Rousseau |title=Rousseau after two hundred years (Proceedings of the Cambridge Bicentennial Colloqium) |author1=Christopher Frayling |author2=Robert Wokler |editor=R. A. Leigh |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Bristol |year=1982 |page=122 |quote=For details of the sixteen formal treatises and dissertations that discussed the implications of the 1731–32 'epidemic' (most of them written by German doctors and theologians), see Tony Faivre, ''Les Vampires'' (Paris, 1962), pp. 154–9; Dieter Sturm and Klaus Völker, ''Von denen Vampiren oder Menschensaugern'' (München, 1973), pp. 519–23; and Frayling's introduction to ''The Vampyre'' (London, 1978), pp. 31–4.}}</ref>
[[Dom Augustine Calmet]], a French theologian and scholar, published a comprehensive treatise in 1751 titled ''[[Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants]]'' which investigated and analysed the evidence for vampirism.{{sfn|Hoyt|1984|p=101-106}}{{efn|1=Calmet conducted extensive research and amassed judicial reports of vampiric incidents and extensively researched theological and mythological accounts as well, using the scientific method in his analysis to come up with methods for determining the validity for cases of this nature. As he stated in his treatise:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Calmet|first1=Augustin|title=Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants: of Hungary, Moravia, et al. The Complete Volumes I & II. Translated by Rev Henry Christmas & Brett Warren. 2015|date=1751|isbn=978-1-5331-4568-0|pages=303–304|publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform }}</ref>

<blockquote>They see, it is said, men who have been dead for several months, come back to earth, talk, walk, infest villages, ill use both men and beasts, suck the blood of their near relations, make them ill, and finally cause their death; so that people can only save themselves from their dangerous visits and their hauntings by exhuming them, impaling them, cutting off their heads, tearing out the heart, or burning them. These revenants are called by the name of oupires or vampires, that is to say, [[leech]]es; and such particulars are related of them, so singular, so detailed, and invested with such probable circumstances and such judicial information, that one can hardly refuse to credit the belief which is held in those countries, that these revenants come out of their tombs and produce those effects which are proclaimed of them.</blockquote>}} Numerous readers, including both [[Voltaire]] (critical) and numerous [[demonologist]]s (supportive), interpreted the treatise as claiming that vampires existed.{{sfn|Hoyt|1984|p=101-106}}{{efn|1=In the ''[[Philosophical Dictionary]],'' Voltaire wrote:<ref>{{cite book|title=Philosophical Dictionary|author=Voltaire|year=1984|orig-year=1764|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-044257-1|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldic0000volt}}</ref>

{{blockquote|These vampires were corpses, who went out of their graves at night to suck the blood of the living, either at their throats or stomachs, after which they returned to their cemeteries. The persons so sucked waned, grew pale, and fell into [[tuberculosis|consumption]]; while the sucking corpses grew fat, got rosy, and enjoyed an excellent appetite. It was in Poland, Hungary, [[Silesia]], [[Moravia]], Austria, and [[Alsace-Lorraine|Lorraine]], that the dead made this good cheer.}} }}

The controversy in Austria ceased when Empress [[Maria Theresa]] sent her personal physician, [[Gerard van Swieten]], to investigate the claims of vampiric entities. Van Swieten concluded that vampires did not exist and the Empress passed laws prohibiting the opening of graves and the desecration of bodies, thus ending the vampire epidemic. Other European countries followed suit. Despite this condemnation, the vampire lived on in artistic works and in local folklore.{{sfn|Hoyt|1984|p=101-106}}