Editing Wichita language (section)

==Grammar and morphology==

Wichita is an agglutinative, polysynthetic language, meaning words have a root verb basis to which information is added; that is, morphemes (affixes) are added to verb roots. These words may contain subjects, objects, indirect objects, and possibly indicate possession. Thus, surprisingly complex ideas can be communicated with as little as one word. For example, {{IPA|/kijaʔaːt͡ssthirʔaːt͡s/}} means "one makes himself a fire".<ref name="Rood, 2008, p. 395-405" />

Nouns do not distinguish between singular and plural, as this information is specified as part of the verb. Wichita also does not distinguish between genders, which can be problematic for English language translation.<ref name="Rood, 2008, p. 395-405" />

Sentence structure is much more fluid than in English, with words being organized according to importance or novelty. Often the subject{{clarify|reason=slSee example and next use of the word "subject" after the example.|date=June 2021}} of the sentence is placed initially. Linguist David S. Rood, who has written many papers concerning the Wichita language, recorded this example, as spoken by Bertha Provost (a native speaker, now deceased) in the late 1960s.<ref name="Rood, 2008, p. 395-405" />

{{interlinear|indent=3
|hiɾaːwisʔihaːs kijariːt͡seːhiɾeːweʔe hikaʔat͡saːkikaʔakʔit͡saki hiɾaːɾʔ tiʔi naːkiɾih
|Old.time.people God When.he.made.us.dwell Earth This Where.it.is.located
|"When God put our ancestors on this earth."}}

The subject{{clarify|reason=It looks like "subject" is being used to refer to something pragmatic like topic, or possibly to an absolutive-case-like role, rather than to the nominative-case-like role the word "subject" usually refers to in linguistics.|date=June 2021}} of the sentence is ancestors, and thus the sentence begins with it, instead of God, or creation (when.he.made.us.dwell). This leads one to conclude Wichita has a largely free word-order, where parts of the sentence do not need to be located next to each other to be related.<ref name="Rood, 2008, p. 395-405" />

The perfective tense demonstrates that an act has been completed; on the other hand, the intentive tense indicates that a subject plans or planned to carry out a certain act. The habitual aspect indicates a habitual activity, for example: "he smokes" but not "he is smoking." Durative tense describes an activity, which is coextensive with something else.

Wichita has no indirect speech or passive voice. When using past tense, speakers must indicate if this knowledge of the past is based in hearsay or personal knowledge. Wichita speakers also use a morpheme which amounts to two versions of "we"; one that includes the listener, and one that does not. Wichita also differentiates between singular, dual and plural number, instead of the simpler singular or plural designations commonly found.<ref name="Rood, 2008, p. 395-405" />

===Affixes===
Some Wichita affixes are:<ref>http ||//www.colorado.edu/linguistics/faculty/rood-old/Wichita/SketchofWichita.pdf</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan=2| Prefixes
|-
| aorist || a ... ki-{{clarify|date=February 2014}}
|-
| aorist quotative || aːʔa ... ki-{{clarify|date=February 2014}}
|-
| future || keʔe-
|-
| future quotative || eheː-
|-
| perfect || aɾa-
|-
| perfect quotative || aːɾa-
|-
| indicative || ta/ti-
|-
| exclamatory || iskiri-
|-
| durative || a/i-
|-
| imperative || hi/i-
|-
| future imperative || kiʔi-
|-
| optative || kaʔa-
|-
| debetative || kaɾa-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan=2| Suffixes
|-
| perfective || Ø
|-
| imperfective || -s
|-
| intentive || -staɾis
|-
| habitual || -ːss
|-
| too late || -iːhiːʔ
|}

:{{IPA|/ehèːʔáɾasis/}}
:imperfective.future.quotative
:'I heard she'll be cooking it.'

===Instrumental suffixes===
<ref name="Rood, David S. 1976">{{harvnb|Rood|1976}}</ref>
The suffix is Rá:hir, added to the base. Another means of expressing instrument, used only for body parts, is a characteristic position of incorporation in the verb complex.
# '''ha:rhiwi:cá:hir'''     'using a bowl' (ha:rhiwi:c 'bowl')
# '''ika:rá:hir'''          'with a rock' (ika:ʔa 'rock')
# '''kirikirʔi:sá:hir'''    'in Wichita (the language)' (kirikirʔi:s 'Wichita)
# '''iskiʔo:rʔeh'''         'hold me in your arms' (iskiʔ 'imperative 2nd subject, 1st object'; a 'reflexive possessor'; ʔawir 'arm'; ʔahi 'hold').
# '''keʔese:cʔíriyari'''    'you will shake your head' (keʔes 'future 2nd subject'; a 'reflexive possessor'; ic 'face'; ʔiriyari 'go around'. Literally: 'you will go around, using your face').

===Tense and aspect===
One of these [[tense-aspect-mood|tense-aspect prefixes]] must occur in any complete verb form.<ref name="Rood, David S. 1976" />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| durative; directive || a / i
|-
| aorist (general past tense) || a...ki
|-
| perfect; recent past || ara
|-
| future quotative || eheː
|-
| subjunctive || ha...ki
|-
| exclamatory; immediate present || iskiri
|-
| ought || kara
|-
| optative || kaʔa
|-
| future || keʔe
|-
| future imperative || kiʔi
|-
| participle || na
|-
| interrogative indicative || ra
|-
| indicative || ta
|-
| negative indicative || ʔa
|}
Note: kara (ought), alone, always means 'subject should', but in complex constructions it is used for hypothetical action, as in 'what would you do if...')

The [[aspect (linguistics)|aspect]]-marking suffixes are:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| perfective || Ø
|-
| imperfective || s
|-
| intentive || staris
|-
| generic || ːss
|-
|}

Other prefixes and suffixes are as follows:
* The '''exclamatory''' inflection indicates excitement. 
* The '''imperative''' is used as the command form.
* The '''directive''' inflection is used in giving directions in sequences, such as describing how one makes something.
** This occurs only with 2nd or 3rd person subject pronouns and only in the singular.
* The '''optative''' is usually translated 'I wish' or 'subject should'.
* Although '''ought''' seems to imply that the action is the duty of the subject, it is frequently used for hypothetical statements in complex constructions.
* The unit '''durative''' suggests that the beginning and ending of the event are unimportant, or that the event is coextensive with something else.
* '''Indicative''' is the name of the most commonly used Wichita inflection translating English sentences out of context. It marks predication as a simple assertion. The time is always non-future, the event described is factual, and the situation is usually one of everyday conversation.
** The prefix is ti- with 3rd persons and ta- otherwise
* The '''aorist''' is used in narratives, stories, and in situations where something that happened or might have happened relatively far in the past is meant.
* The '''future''' may be interpreted in the traditional way. It is obligatory for any event in the future, no matter how imminent, unless the event is stated to be part of someone's plans, in which case '''intentive''' is used instead.
* The '''perfect''' implies recently completed.
** It makes the fact of completion of activity definite, and specifies an event in the recent past.
* The '''aorist intentive''' means 'I heard they were going to ... but they didn't.'
* The '''indicative intentive''' means 'They are going to ... ' without implying anything about the evidence on which the statement is based, nor about the probability of completion.
* The optional inflection '''quotative''' occurs with the aorist, future, or perfect tenses.
** If it occurs, it specifies that the speaker's information is from some source other than personal observation or knowledge.
*** 'I heard that ... ' or 'I didn't know, but ... '
** If it does not occur, the form unambiguously implies that evidence for the report is personal observation.

Examples:
ʔarasi 'cook'
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| á:kaʔarásis || quotative aorist imperfective || I heard she was cooking it
|-
| kiyakaʔarásis || quotative aorist imperfective || I heard she was cooking it
|-
| á:kaʔarásiki || quotative aorist perfective || I heard she was cooking it
|-
| á:kaʔarásistaris || quotative aorist intentive || I heard she was planning on cooking it
|-
| kiyakaʔarásistaris || quotative aorist intentive || I heard she was planning on cooking it
|-
| á:kaʔarásiki:ss || quotative aorist generic || I heard she always cooked it
|-
| kiyakaʔarásiki:ss || quotative aorist generic || I heard she always cooked it
|-
| ákaʔárasis || aorist imperfective || I know myself she was cooking it
|-
| ákaʔárasiki || aorist perfective || I know myself she cooked it
|-
| ákaʔarásistaris || aorist intentive || I know myself she was going to cook it
|-
| ákaʔaraásiki:ss || aorist generic || I know myself she always cooked it
|-
| keʔárasiki || future perfective || She will cook it
|-
| keʔárasis || future imperfective || She will be cooking it
|-
| keʔárasiki:ss|| future generic || She will always cook it
|-
| ehéʔárasiki || quotative future perfective || I heard she will cook it
|-
| ehéʔárasis || quotative future imperfective || I heard she will be cooking it
|-
| eheʔárasiki:ss || quotative future generic || I heard she will always be the one to cook it
|-
| taʔarásis || indicative imperfective || She is cooking it; She cooked it
|-
| taʔarásistaris || indicative intentive || She's planning to cook it
|-
| taʔarásiki::s || indicative generic || She always cooks it
|-
| ískirá:rásis || exclamatory || There she goes, cooking it!
|-
| aʔarásis || directive imperfective || Then you cook it
|-
| haʔarásiki || imperative imperfective || Let her cook it
|-
| ki:ʔárasiki || future imperative perfective || Let her cook it later
|-
| ki:ʔárasiki:ss || future imperative generic || You must always let her cook it
|-
| á:raʔarásiki || quotative perfect perfective || I heard she cooked it
|-
| á:raʔarásistaris || quotative perfect intentive || I heard she was going to cook it
|-
| áraʔárasiki || perfect perfective || I know she cooked it
|-
| keʔeʔárasis || optative imperfective || I wish she'd be cooking it
|-
| keʔeʔárasiki || optative perfective || I wish she'd cook it
|-
| keʔeʔárasistaris || optative intentive || I wish she would plan to cook it
|-
| keʔeʔárasiki:ss || optative generic || I wish she'd always cook it
|-
| keʔeʔárasiki:hi:ʔ || optative too late || I wish she had cooked it
|-
| karaʔárasis || ought imperfective || She ought to be cooking it
|-
| karaʔarásiki:ss || ought generic || She should always cook it
|-
| karaʔárasiski:hiʔ || ought too late || She ought to have cooked it
|-
|}

===Modifiers===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| assé:hah || all
|-
| ta:wʔic || few
|-
| tiʔih || this
|-
| ha:rí:h || that
|-
| hi:hánthirih || tomorrow
|-
| tiʔikhánthirisʔih || yesterday
|-
| chih á:kiʔí:rakhárisʔí:h || suddenly
|-
| ti:ʔ || at once
|-
| wah || already
|-
| chah || still
|-
| chih || continues
|-
| tiʔrih || here
|-
| harah || there
|-
| hí:raka:h || way off
|-
| hita || edge
|-
| kata || on the side
|-
| (i)wac || outside
|-
| ha || in water
|-
| ka || in a topless enclosure
|-
| ka: || in a completely enclosed space
|-
| kataska ||in an open area
|-
| ʔir || in a direction
|-
| kataskeʔer || through the yard
|-
| kataskeʔero:c || out the other way from the yard
|}
<ref name="colorado.edu">{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.colorado.edu/linguistics/faculty/rood-old/Wichita/SketchofWichita.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923235954/http://www.colorado.edu/linguistics/faculty/rood-old/Wichita/SketchofWichita.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-23 |access-date=2014-02-22}}</ref>

===Case===
<ref name="Rood, David S. 1976" />
In the Wichita language, there are only case markings for obliques. Here are some examples:

====Instrumental case====
* The suffix Rá:hir, added to the base
* Another means of expressing instrument, used only for body parts, is a characteristic position of incorporation in the verb complex
** '''ha:rhiwi:cá:hir'''     'using a bowl' (ha:rhiwi:c 'bowl')
** '''ika:rá:hir'''          'with a rock' (ika:ʔa 'rock')

====Locative case====
Most nouns take a locative suffix kiyah:
{{interlinear|lang=wic|indent=3
|top= ika:kíyah
|ika:ʔa -kiyah
|rock LOC
|'where the rock is'}}

But a few take the verbal {{transliteration|wic|italic=no|-hirih}}:
{{interlinear|lang=wic|indent=3
|top= hánnhirh
|hir-ahrʔa -hirih
|ground LOC
|'on the ground'}}

Any verbal participle (i.e. any sentence) can be converted to a locative clause by the suffix {{transliteration|wic|italic=no|-hirih}}
* '''{{transliteration|wic|italic=no|tihe:ha}}'''     'it is a creek'
* '''{{transliteration|wic|italic=no|nahe:hárih}}'''  'where the creek is'

===Predicates and arguments===
Wichita is a polysynthetic language. Almost all the information in any simple sentence is expressed by means of bound morphemes in the verb complex. The only exception to this are (1) noun stems, specifically those functioning as agents of transitive verbs but sometimes those in other functions as well, and (2) specific modifying particles. A typical sentence from a story is the following:<ref name="colorado.edu" />

{{interlinear|indent=2
|top= wá:cʔarʔa kiya:kíriwa:cʔárasarikìtàʔahí:rikss niya:hkʷírih
|wa:cʔarʔa {} kiya+ a...ki+ a+ Riwa:c+ ʔaras+ Ra+ ri+ kita+ ʔa+ hi:riks+ s {} na+ ya:k+ r+ wi+ hrih
|squirrel {} QUOT AOR {{gcl|PVB|preverb}} {big (quantity)} meat COL {{gcl|PORT|portative}} top come {{gcl|REP|repetitive}} IPFV {} PTCP wood COL {be upright} LOC
|'The squirrel, by making many trips, carried the large quantity of meat up into the top of the tree, they say.'}}

Note that ''squirrel'' is the agent and occurs by itself with no morphemes indicating number or anything else. The verb, in addition to the verbal units of quotative, aorist, repetitive, and imperfective, also contain morphemes that indicate the agent is singular, the patient is collective, the direction of the action is to the top, and all the lexical information about the whole patient noun phrase, "big quantity of meat."