Editing Christopher Smart (section)

==Literary themes and styles==
Christopher Smart received occasional mentions by critics and scholars after his death, especially by Robert Browning, but analysis and commentary on his works increased dramatically with the "discovery" of ''Jubilate Agno'' in 1939.<ref name="Poetical Works I p. xxii">''Poetical Works'' I p. xxii</ref> Many recent critics approach Smart from a religious perspective (Neil Curry, Harriet Guest, Clement Hawes, Chris Mounsey). However, some also favour a psychology/sexual analysis of his works (Lance Bertelsen, Clemet Hawes, Alan Liu).

===Religion===
[[Image:Jubilate Agno let.JPG|thumb|right|A page from the "Let" side of the ''Jubilate Agno'' manuscript]] [[Image:Jubilate Agno for.JPG|thumb|right|A page from the "For" side of the ''Jubilate Agno'' manuscript]]
Although Smart wrote the "Seatonian Prize" poems early on, there is a contrast between the mimicked Miltonic blank verse and the intense exploration of religion found in his later works.<ref>{{harvnb|Guest|1989|p=70}}</ref> His first "Seatonian Prize" poem, ''On the Eternity of the Supreme Being'' is part of two traditional types of religious writing: "authoritative discourse of religious poetry" and "tentative and self-critical discourse of an apparently more personal devotion"<ref name="Guest p. 71">{{harvnb|Guest|1989|p=71}}</ref>  In connecting the two, he redefines "the role of the religious poet."<ref name="Guest p. 71" /> By establishing a debate between these two forms, Harriet Guest claims that Smart creates "a poetic space which allows the poet to make provisional, even questionable statements", which are important to his later works.<ref>{{harvnb|Guest|1989|p=83}}</ref> To Guest, Smart, in his religious poems, "is not concerned to offer instruction in Christian conduct."<ref>{{harvnb|Guest|1989|p=94}}</ref> Besides the greater theological debate, the poems are also the origins of Smart's belief that all of creation is constantly praising God, and that a poet must "give voice to mute nature's praise of God."<ref name="Curry p. 8">{{harvnb|Curry|2005|p=8}}</ref>

''Jubilate Agno'' reflects an abandonment of traditional poetic structures in order to explore complex religious thought.<ref>{{harvnb|Guest|1989|p=132}}</ref> His "Let" verses join creation together as he seemingly writes his own version of Biblical poetry.<ref>{{harvnb|Guest|1989|p=140}}</ref> Smart, in ''Jubilate Agno'', plays on words and the meaning behind words in order to participate with the divine that exists within language.<ref>{{harvnb|Guest|1989|p=167}}</ref> Although the original manuscript divided the "Let" and "For" verses onto opposing sides of the manuscript, Karina Williams claims that "Dr W. H. Bond then discovered that some of the LET and FOR folios were numbered and dated concurrently, and that these chronologically parallel texts were further connected by verbal links."<ref name="Prose Works I p. xxii">''Prose Works'' I p. xxii</ref> This justified her combining the two sides to follow each other.<ref name="Prose Works I p. xxii" /> Using this as a model, Guest claims that the "For" verses explore religion with a "personal tone" and the "Let" are "unambiguous" and deal with public matters.<ref>{{harvnb|Guest|1989|pp=141–142}}</ref> Jeanne Walker goes further than Guest and claims that the "Let " and "For" sections are united with the Hebrew tradition and "iterate both present and future simultaneously, that is, they redeem time."<ref>{{harvnb|Walker|1980|p=458}}</ref>

Words and language connect the poet to divine revelation, and God is the "great poet" who used language in order to create the universe.<ref>{{harvnb|Curry|2005|p=28}}</ref> Through words and language, Smart attempted to capture the creative power of those words.<ref>{{harvnb|Hawes|1996|pp=140–141}}</ref> By relying on the power of words, Smart is, according to Clement Hawes, subverting "Anglican control over religious functions and services."<ref>{{harvnb|Hawes|1996|p=152}}</ref> In essence, Smart's approach to religion in ''Jubilate Agno'' is comparable to [[John Wesley]]'s theological [[dictum]] and to the writings of John Perro and [[William Bowling]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hawes|1996|p=163}}</ref> He also creates his own natural philosophy and criticizes science, like that established by [[Isaac Newton]], for their ignoring "the glory of Almighty God."<ref>{{harvnb|Guest|1989|p=201}}</ref>

To Smart, each piece of matter is alive because it is connected to God, and matter cannot be described in a cold manner that disconnects it from this reality.<ref>{{harvnb|Guest|1989|p=214}}</ref> However, Smart accomplished his new science by relying on Newtonian empiricism.<ref>{{harvnb|Mounsey|2001|p=221}}</ref> As part of his desire to bring back the divine language to poetry and science, he creates an "Ark of Salvation" in order to describe a prophetic and apocalyptic future which emphasises the importance of Christ and England.<ref name="Prose Works I p. xxv">''Prose Works'' I p. xxv</ref> Along with being prophetic, the poem itself is modelled after the canticles and follows the form of the [[Benedicite]].<ref name="Prose Works I p. xxv" /> The Benedicite is not the only model however, and there is a strong link between ''Jubilate Agno'' and the [[psalm]] tradition.<ref>{{harvnb|Walker|1980|p=450}}</ref>

Smart's ''A Song to David'' is an attempt to bridge poetry written by humans and Biblical poetry.<ref>{{harvnb|Guest|1989|p=246}}</ref> The Biblical [[David]] plays an important role in this poem just as he played an important role in ''Jubilate Agno''<ref name="Hawes p. 167">{{harvnb|Hawes|1996|p=167}}</ref> However, David in ''Jubilate Agno'' is an image of the creative power of poetry whereas he becomes a fully realized model of the religious poet.<ref name="Hawes p. 167" /> By focusing on David, Smart is able to tap into the "heavenly language."<ref>{{harvnb|Jacobs|1998|p=189}}</ref> Many critics have focused on the role of David as planner of [[Solomon's Temple]] and his possible role with the [[Freemasons]].<ref name="Curry p. 57">{{harvnb|Curry|2005|p=57}}</ref> However, the true life of the poem comes later when Christ is introduced as the major subject.<ref name="Curry 6 7" /> After Christ is introduced, Smart attempts to "reach to heaven" and the final passages, to Neil Curry, represent a "final rush for glory."<ref>{{harvnb|Curry|2005|p=69}}</ref>

According to Mounsey, ''A Song to David'' and Smart's ''Psalms'' is an attempt to "Christianize" the Old Testament through writing an 18th-century [[psalter]].<ref>{{harvnb|Mounsey|2001|p=213}}</ref> However, the ''Psalms'' perform a secondary function: they allow Smart to relate to the suffering of David and to reinforce his own religious convictions by following his Biblical model.<ref name="Curry p. 44">{{harvnb|Curry|2005|p=44}}</ref> As part of Smart's "Christianizing" of the ''Psalms'', Jesus becomes a divine form of suffering, and Smart becomes further juxtaposed with his Biblical model as both praise God for Jesus's ultimate sacrifice and for the beauty of all creation.<ref name="Curry p. 44" /> The ''Hymns'' and ''Psalms'' form their own sort of liturgy and attempt to reform Anglican liturgy by emphasizing God's place in nature.<ref>{{harvnb|Guest|1989|p=251}}</ref>

Smart's ''Hymns'' are modelled after a tradition exemplified by [[Robert Nelson (nonjuror)|Robert Nelson]].<ref>{{harvnb|Curry|2005|p=74}}</ref> They are steeped in Anglican tradition and also emphasize English patriotism and England's divine favour.<ref>{{harvnb|Curry|2005|p=76}}</ref> The ''Hymns'', according to Guest, "[express] a delight in creation that is largely absent from the work of other hymn-writers of the century, unless they are paraphrasing the words of David."<ref>{{harvnb|Guest|1989|p=252}}</ref> To Hawes, the ''Hymns'' exemplify an evangelical spirit that separates Smart from the traditional Anglican church.<ref>{{harvnb|Hawes|1996|p=134}}</ref> Although he wrote his second set of hymns, ''Hymns for the Amusement of Children'', for a younger audience, Smart cares more about emphasizing the need for children to be moral instead of "innocent".<ref>{{harvnb|Curry|2005|p=91}}</ref> These works have been seen as possibly too complicated for "amusement" because they employ ambiguities and complicated theological concepts.<ref>{{harvnb|Booth|1999|p=71}}</ref> In essence, the ''Hymns for the Amusement of Children'' is intended to teach children the specific virtues that make up the subject matter of the work.<ref>{{harvnb|Curry|2005|p=93}}</ref> Like the ''Hymns for the Amusement of Children'', Smart's ''The Parables of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ'' were designed to teach morals.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker|1999|p=88}}</ref> However, these ''Parables'' alter the original Biblical [[parable]]s in order to simplify them and help them "make sense"<ref>{{harvnb|Parker|1999|p=95}}</ref> As such, Todd Parker claims that the ''Parables'', and the other religious works of Smart, are part of his final push for the "evangelization of London's reading public."<ref>{{harvnb|Parker|1999|p=84}}</ref>

===Language===
The language and commentary on language is of particular emphasis in ''Jubilate Agno''. To Alan Jacobs, Smart's use of language represents his attempt to connect to the "Ur language", allowing Smart to connect to "the Word calling forth the world."<ref>{{harvnb|Jacobs|1998|p=196}}</ref> This is similar to David and [[Orpheus]]'s ability as poets to create through their song.<ref name="Hawes p. 167" /> In his constant emphasis on the force of poetry, ''Jubilate Agno'' takes on the qualities of the ''[[Ars Poetica (Horace)|Ars Poetica]]'' tradition.<ref>{{harvnb|Ennis|2000|p=8}}</ref> As such, Smart is attempting to develop a poetic language that will connect him to the "one true, eternal poem."<ref>{{harvnb|Ennis|2000|p=10}}</ref> The poetic language that he creates is related to Adam's "onomathetic" tradition, or the idea that names hold significant weight in the universe and that Adam was able to join in with creation by naming objects.<ref>{{harvnb|Costa|2002|p=296}}</ref>

In ''Jubilate Agno'', he describes his writing as creating "impressions".<ref>{{harvnb|Liu|1985|p=127}}</ref> To accomplish this task, he incorporated puns and onomatopoeia in order to emphasize the theological significance of his poetic language.<ref>{{harvnb|Costa|2002|p=305}}</ref> In addition to these techniques, he relied on repeated language and allusions to traditional works and to scripture for a source of authority in various works, especially in his ''Hymns''.<ref>{{harvnb|Walsh|1999|p=40}}</ref> Along with scriptural authority, he relies on prophetic rhetoric to gain his audience's sympathy.<ref>{{harvnb|Katz|1999|p=54}}</ref>

During the 18th century, there was a debate over poetic language and the translations of Smart, especially of Horace, positioned him as one who sought to redeem traditional forms and understanding of language.<ref>{{harvnb|Walsh|1998|p=147}}</ref> However, some critics, like Alan Liu, believe that translations are effectively forced to compete against the original works, and that Smart's language, at least in his translations, must constantly seek to undermine the original authors, like Horace.<ref>{{harvnb|Liu|1985|p=133}}</ref> Not all critics agree with Liu, and those like Donald Davie believe that the Smart's translations cannot be compared to the original works, but are part of a system of Smart competing against the language of his contemporaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Davie|1990|p=825}}</ref> Thomas Keymer further verified this point about Smart's translations by revealing that the poet claims, in William Toldervy's ''The History of Two Orphans'', "But what heaven-exciting harmony might we not expect from that exalted genius, who can produce such lines as these following!" in anticipation of replacing the previous flawed translations of the ''Psalms''.<ref>{{harvnb|Keymer|2003|p=57}}</ref>

Regardless of where he stood on the specific issue of translation Smart believed that there was an importance to language, which carried over to his constant revising of his poems to slowly correct them.<ref>{{harvnb|Mahony|1983|p=196}}</ref> Many of Smart's poems served a dual purpose, and when put to music were altered to meet various standards.<ref>{{harvnb|Mahony|1983|p=200}}</ref> By constantly revising, he ensured that his poems were always the "authentic" version.<ref>{{harvnb|Mahony|1983|p=203}}</ref>

===Gender===
Smart's role as Mrs. Midnight along with his gendered comments in ''Jubilate Agno'' form the focal point for analysing his understanding of sexuality and gender. With Mrs. Midnight, Smart challenges the traditional social order found in 18th-century England.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertelsen|1999|p=364}}</ref> However, some, like Lance Bertelsen, argue that the Mrs. Midnight persona reveals a split personality torn between masculine and feminine roles.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertelsen|1999|p=365}}</ref> Fraser Easton say the existence of Mrs. Midnight proves that Smart identified a female connection to poetry and her character was used to defy popular 18th-century notions of who is able to attain knowledge.<ref>{{harvnb|Easton|1998|p=198}}</ref> This role allowed Smart to focus on "social and sexual dimensions" in his satire.<ref>{{harvnb|Easton|1998|p=200}}</ref> However, there is a potentially darker side to Mrs. Midnight, and she could represent his feelings that he was "emasculated by economic pressures."<ref>{{harvnb|Hawes|1995|p=9}}</ref>

The image of "horns" in ''Jubilate Agno'' is commonly viewed as a sexual image.<ref>{{harvnb|Liu|1985|p=121}}</ref> Easton puts particular emphasis on the image of horns as a phallic image and contends that there are masculine and feminine horns throughout Smart's poem.<ref>{{harvnb|Easton|1998|p=234}}</ref> Hawes picks up this theme and goes on to claims that the poem shows "that [Smart] had been 'feminized' as a cuckold."<ref>{{harvnb|Hawes|1995|p=4}}</ref> In response to this possible cuckolding, ''Jubilate Agno'' predicts a misogynistic future while simultaneously undermining this effort with his constant associations to female creation.<ref>{{harvnb|Hawes|1995|p=16}}</ref>

===Environmental===
Smart had a reputation for being a "dedicated gardener".<ref name="Dearnley p. 46">{{harvnb|Dearnley|1969|p=46}}</ref> His poem ''The Hop-Garden'' helped to further this reputation, and even during his stay in a mental asylum he convinced others of his bond with nature.<ref name="Dearnley p. 46" /> Johnson witnessed Smart's time in asylum and stated, "he has partly as much exercise as he used to have, for he digs in the garden."<ref>''[[Boswell's Life of Johnson]]''</ref> Gardening, to Smart, was a way in which humans could interact with nature and actually "improve" on the natural landscape.<ref>{{harvnb|Dearnley|1969|p=47}}</ref>

However, Smart did not only write about gardens and vegetation, and his focus on his cat Jeoffry is widely known and his focus on nature connects him to those mistreated and neglected by 18th-century society.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertelsen|1999|p=375}}</ref> The first fragment of ''Jubilate Agno'' is a poetic "Ark" that pairs humans with animals in order to purify all of creation.<ref name="Prose Works I p. xxv" /> The whole work relies on his extensive background in botany and his knowledge of taxonomy.<ref>{{harvnb|Mounsey|2001|p=226}}</ref> He actively participated in the 18th-century taxonomy systems established by [[Carl Linnaeus]]; however, Smart is mythologising his view of nature and creation when he adds information from [[Pliny the Elder]] into his work.<ref>{{harvnb|Miller|1999|p=109}}</ref>

By using this knowledge, Smart was able to give a "voice" to nature; he believed that nature, like his cat Jeoffry, is always praising God but needs a poet in order to bring out that voice.<ref name="Curry p. 8" /> As such, themes of animals and language are merged in ''Jubilate Agno'', and Jeoffry is transformed into a manifestation of the ''Ars Poetica'' tradition.<ref>{{harvnb|Ennis|2000|p=16}}</ref>

===Freemasonry===
Many critics have focused on the role of David as planner of [[Solomon's Temple]] and his possible role with the [[Freemasons]].<ref name="Curry p. 57" /> Although it is not known for sure whether Smart was a Freemason or not, there is evidence suggesting that he was either part of the organization or had a strong knowledge of its belief system.<ref>{{harvnb|Rose|2005|p=404}}</ref> Based on personal admittance to contributing to ''A Defence of Freemasonry'', contemporary verification of his participation in the volume and with Masonic meetings, there is enough to confirm "his participation in Masonic affairs."<ref name="Sherbo p. 221">{{harvnb|Sherbo|1967|p=221}}</ref> Furthermore, there are accounts of Smart attending meetings at the Bell Tavern in Westminster.<ref name="Sherbo p. 221" /><ref>Lane, John ''Masonic Records, 1717–1886.'' London, 1886. pp. 4, 23</ref> The information available has led Marie Roberts to declare in her 1986 book ''British Poets and Secret Societies'', "It has been universally accepted by scholars that Christopher Smart&nbsp;... was a Freemason yet no record of his membership has been traced."<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1986|p=10}}</ref> However, in the notes to Chris Mounsey's 2001 book ''Christopher Smart: Clown of God'', Marie Roberts' 1986 book is referred to as "an account of Smart's work which accepts his association with the Freemasons," but in Mounsey's view, "Since neither Smart's name nor his pseudonyms appear in the records of the Freemasons, it is highly unlikely he was ever one of their number."<ref>{{harvnb|Mounsey|2001|p=320}}</ref>

Smart's involvement with Masonry can be traced through his poems, including ''Jubilate Agno'' and ''A Song to David'', with his constant references to Masonic ideas and his praise of Freemasonry in general.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1986|pp=10–11}}</ref> In ''Jubilate Agno'', Smart declares "I am the Lord's builder and free and accepted MASON in CHRIST JESUS" (B 109). This declaration of being a "free and accepted MASON" has been interpreted to define his connection to [[History of Freemasonry#Origin theories of speculative freemasonry|speculative Masonry]]. The "in Christ Jesus" declaration places Smart within a Christian version of Masonry. He also declares himself to be "the Lord's builder" and this connects his life with the building of King Solomon's Temple, an important Masonic idea. In ''A Song to David'', Smart returns to the building of Solomon's Temple and incorporates many of the Masonic images that he uses in ''Jubilate Agno''.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1986|p=11}}</ref>

It was this detail that encouraged many critics to try to decode the "seven pillar" section of ''A Song of David'' along the lines of Masonic imagery.<ref name="Curry p. 57" /> The poem follows two traditional sets of motions common to Freemason writing that mimic the image of [[Jacob's Ladder]]: movement from earth to heaven and movement from heaven to earth.<ref>{{harvnb|Rose|2005|p=405}}</ref> This image further connects Freemason belief surrounding the relationship of David to Solomon's Temple.<ref name="Rose p. 407">{{harvnb|Rose|2005|p=407}}</ref> While these images, and further images in ''A Song to David'' are related also to depictions of the Temple in Isaac Newton's ''Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended'' (1728), the [[John Bunyan]]'s ''Solomon's Temple Spiritualiz'd'' (1688), and to the [[Geneva Bible]], these works were relied on by the Freemasons.<ref>{{harvnb|Rose|2005|p=409}}</ref>

Based on this theory, the first pillar, the Greek alpha, represents the mason's compass and "God as the Architect of the Universe."<ref>{{harvnb|Rose|2005|p=406}}</ref> The second, the Greek gamma, represents the mason's square.<ref>{{harvnb|Rose|2005|pp=406–407}}</ref> In addition, the square represents the "vault of heaven."<ref name="Rose p. 407" /> The third, the Greek eta, represents Jacob's ladder itself and is connected to the complete idea of seven pillars.<ref name="Rose p. 408">{{harvnb|Rose|2005|p=408}}</ref> The fourth, the Greek theta, is either "the all-seeing eye or the point within a circle."<ref name="Rose p. 408" /> The fifth letter, the Greek iota, represents a pillar and the temple.<ref name="Rose p. 410">{{harvnb|Rose|2005|p=410}}</ref> The sixth letter, the Greek sigma, is an incomplete [[hexagram]], otherwise known as "the blazing star or hexalpha" to the Freemasons.<ref name="Rose p. 410" /> The last, the Greek omega, represents a lyre and David as a poet.<ref>{{harvnb|Rose|2005|p=413}}</ref>