Editing Comstock Lode (section)

==Support infrastructure==

=== Transportation ===
[[File:Peep at Washoe - Carambo! Caraja!.jpg|thumb|"Carambo!—Caraja!—Sacramento!—Santa Maria!—Diavolo!": the difficult trek by mule train from California (1860 illustration from ''[[Harper's]]'')]]
Before railroads were built, all freight and passengers were transported by teams of from 10 to 16 horses or mules. Ore was hauled to the mills by these teams, which also brought to the mines all the lumber required for construction among other things. [[Dan DeQuille]] observed in 1876, "the Comstock Lode may truthfully be said to be the tomb of the forests of the Sierra."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.historynet.com/square-set-timbering-v-flume-kept-comstock-lode-running-strong/ |title=Square-Set Timbering and the V-Flume Kept the Comstock Lode Running Strong |last=Straka |first=Tom |last2=Wynn |first2=Bob |date=January 17, 2018 |website=History.net |publisher=HistoryNet LLC |access-date=December 27, 2022 |quote=The Comstock Lode may truthfully be said to be the tomb of the Sierras. Millions upon millions of feet of lumber are annually buried in the mines, nevermore to be resurrected. When once it is planted in the lower levels, it never again sees the light of day. …For a distance of 50 or 60 miles, all the hills of the eastern slope of the Sierras have been to a great extent denuded of trees of every kind; those suitable only for wood as well those fit for the manufacture of lumber for use in the mines.}}</ref> It is estimated eighty million feet of timber and lumber annually were consumed in the Comstock. Lumber and cord wood were harvested with little regard for impact, for housing, commercial building, heating, and steam boilers at sawmills and ore mills.<ref>(Va. City Territorial Enterprise)</ref> Teams also hauled over the Sierra all the mining machinery, all supplies required by both mines and mills, as well as goods and merchandise needed by the stores and businesses. Each team hauled trains of two to four wagon loads. When the large reduction works of the Ophir Mining Company were in peak operation, lines of teams from one to three miles (5&nbsp;km) in length moved along the wagon roads, and sometimes blocked Virginia City streets for hours.

From 1859 to 1868, great quantities of goods were transported across the Sierra to and from California on the backs of mules. When the [[Central Pacific Railroad]] line was completed to the [[Truckee Meadows]], this hauling was bi-directional from Reno to Virginia City via the [[Nevada State Route 341|Geiger Grade]] wagon road, for transfer to rail for delivery to points east and west.<ref name=Smith/>{{rp|37–38,127}}

Ground was broken on the [[Virginia and Truckee Railroad]] on February 18, 1869, and by January 28, 1870, the most difficult "crookedest" section from Virginia City to Carson City was completed. Rails were extended north across the [[Washoe Valley]], from Carson City to Reno, where it connected with the Central Pacific.<ref name=Smith/>{{rp|123–125}} Between Virginia City and Carson City, at Mound House, the railroad also connected with the [[Carson and Colorado Railroad]].

=== The Virginia and Gold Hill Water Company ===
When silver was first discovered on the Comstock, the flow of water from natural springs was adequate to supply the needs of the miners and small towns of Virginia City and Gold Hill, Nevada. As population increased, wells were dug for domestic needs, and the water in several mine tunnels was added to the available supply. As the mills and hoisting works multiplied, the demand for water for use in steam boilers became so great that it was impossible to supply it without creating a water shortage among the residents, now thousands in number. In this need, the Virginia and Gold Hill Water Company was formed, being the first non-mining incorporation on the Comstock Lode.

Water from wells and tunnels in the surrounding mountains was soon exhausted. It became imperative to look toward the main range of the Sierra Nevada mountains, where there was an inexhaustible supply. Between the Sierra and the Virginia ranges lay the [[Washoe Valley]], a great trough nearly {{convert|2000|ft|abbr=on}} in depth. [[Hermann Schussler]], a German and Swiss-trained engineer of great repute who had planned and designed waterworks in San Francisco, was brought to the Comstock to plan and design the new works. Surveys were made in 1872, and the first sections of pipe laid June 11, 1873, and the last on July 25 the same year.<ref name="quille"/>

The initial pipe was made of wrought iron and had a total length of over {{convert|7|mi|abbr=on}}, with an interior diameter of {{convert|12|in|abbr=on}} and a capacity of 2.2 million gallons per day (gpd), or 1,500 gallons per minute (gpm). The pipe traversed the Washoe Valley in the form of an inverted siphon, at the lowest point having a pressure of {{convert|1,870|ft|abbr=on}} of water,<ref name=Smith/>{{rp|120–121}} or 810 pounds per square inch (psi) at the design flow. The inlet being {{convert|477|ft|abbr=on}} above the outlet, the water was forced through the pipe at tremendous pressure. Water was brought to the inlet in the Sierra Nevada range from sources of supply in two large covered [[flume]]s, and at the outlet end of the pipe was delivered in two large flumes a distance of {{convert|12|mi|abbr=on}} to Gold Hill and Virginia City. The pipe was constructed of sheets of wrought iron riveted together, each section fastened with three rows of rivets. Lead was used to seal the joints between pipe sections. The first flow of water reached Gold Hill and Virginia City on August 1, 1873, with great fanfare. This accomplishment was the highest pressure water system in operation in the world, having superseded the water system at [[Cherokee, California|Cherokee Flat]] also designed by Schussler.<ref name="quille"/>

The water company laid an additional pipe alongside the first in 1875 and a third pipe in 1877.  These pipes with lap-welded joints delivered more water, there being less friction of rivet heads on the water.  Additional flumes were also constructed to diversify and improve reliability of supply.

Portions of this water system, now called the Marlette Lake Water System, are still in use today, feeding Virginia City with fresh water.

=== Sutro Tunnel ===
[[File:PSM V49 D779 Sutro tunnel sutro nevada.jpg|thumb|right|Sutro Tunnel, {{Circa|1896}}]]
{{Main|Sutro Tunnel}}
While there was a scarcity of water on the surface, there was an excess of water underground in all the mines. Floods in the mines were sudden and miners narrowly escaped being drowned by vast underground reservoirs that were unexpectedly tapped. Intrusion of scalding-hot water into the mines was a large problem, and the expense of water removal increased as depths increased.  To overcome these troubles, [[Adolph Sutro]] conceived the idea of running a drain tunnel under the Comstock Lode from the lowest possible point. A survey was made by Schussler and work commenced in October 1869.

The Sutro Tunnel was completed from the valley near Dayton through nearly four miles, 20,589 feet, of solid rock to meet the Comstock mines approximately {{convert|1750|ft|abbr=on}} beneath the surface.  Two drain laterals were dug, the north one 4,403 feet long and the south one 8,423 feet long.  The tunnel was {{convert|9.5|ft|abbr=on}} wide and {{convert|7.5|ft|abbr=on}} high, inside the timbering. Drain flumes were sunk in the floor and over these were two tracks for horse carts. It required eight and a half years to reach the Lode.  The tunnel drained up to 4,000,000 gallons daily.<ref name=Smith/>{{rp|107–115}}

The tunnel provided drainage and ventilation for the mines as well as gravity-assisted ore removal.  However, by the time the tunnel reached the Comstock area mines, most of the ore above {{convert|1650|ft|abbr=on}} had already been removed and the lower workings were {{convert|1500|ft|abbr=on}} deeper still.  Although virtually no ore was removed through the tunnel, the drainage it provided greatly decreased the operating costs of the mines served.<ref name=Smith/>{{rp|113}} The ventilation problems were solved at about the same time by compressed air for the use of [[Jackhammer|pneumatic drills]].

The tunnel connected with the Savage claim on July 8, 1878.  All of the Gold Hill mines stopped pumping water by March 1882, and water was allowed to rise to the level of the tunnel.  The Combination Shaft ceased pumping below the tunnel on October 16, 1886.<ref name=Smith/>{{rp|112,139,269}}