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Dialect continuum
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=== Slavic languages === Conventionally, on the basis of extralinguistic features (such as writing systems or the former western frontier of the Soviet Union), the North Slavic continuum is split into East and West Slavic continua. From the perspective of linguistic features alone, only two Slavic (dialect) continua can be distinguished, namely North and South,<ref>[[Peter Trudgill]]. 2003. ''A Glossary of Sociolinguistics''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp 36, 95-96, 124-125.</ref><ref>[http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/slavic_eurasia_papers/no10/Maps.pdf#page=4][[Tomasz Kamusella]]<span>. 2017. Map A4, Dialect Continua in Central Europe, 1910 (p 94) and Map A5, Dialect Continua in Central Europe, 2009 (p 95). In: Tomasz Kamusella, Motoki Nomachi, and Catherine Gibson, eds. 2017. </span>''Central Europe Through the Lens of Language and Politics: On the Sample Maps from the Atlas of Language Politics in Modern Central Europe''<span> (Ser: Slavic Eurasia Papers, Vol 10). Sapporo, Japan: Slavic-Eurasian Research Center, Hokkaido University.</span></ref><ref>{{cite web|first = Tomasz|last = Kamusella |url = https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/12905/The_Triple_Division_of_the_Slavic_Langua.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |author-link =Tomasz Kamusella|date = 2005|title =The Triple Division of the Slavic Languages: A Linguistic Finding, a Product of Politics, or an Accident?|format=Working Paper |id = 2005/1|location = Vienna|publisher = Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen}}</ref> separated from each other by a band of non-Slavic languages: Romanian, Hungarian and German. ==== North Slavic continuum ==== The North Slavic continuum covers the [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]] and [[West Slavic languages]]. East Slavic includes [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]; West Slavic languages of [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Silesian language|Silesian]], [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]], and [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper]] and [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]. [[Eastern Slovak dialects|Eastern Slovak]] and [[Pannonian Rusyn]] stand out as sharing features with Slovak, Polish and Rusyn, thus serving as a transition between West and East Slavic languages. ==== South Slavic continuum ==== {{Further|Pluricentric language#Serbo-Croatian}} [[File:South_Slavic_dialect_continuum.svg|thumb|right|200px|South Slavic dialect continuum with major dialect groups]] All South Slavic languages form a dialect continuum.<ref>{{cite book|last=Crystal |first=David |author-link=David Crystal |year=1998 |orig-year=1st pub. 1987 |title=The Cambridge encyclopedia of language |location=Cambridge, New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=25 |oclc=300458429}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last= Friedman |first=Victor |author-link=Victor Friedman |year=1999 |title=Linguistic emblems and emblematic languages: on language as flag in the Balkans |series=Kenneth E. Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics; vol. 1 |location= Columbus, Ohio |publisher=Ohio State University, Dept. of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures |page=8 |oclc=46734277}}</ref> It comprises, from West to East, [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Montenegro]], [[Serbia]], [[North Macedonia]], and [[Bulgaria]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Alexander |first=Ronelle |year=2000 |title=In honor of diversity: the linguistic resources of the Balkans |series=Kenneth E. Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics; vol. 2 |location=Columbus, Ohio |publisher=Ohio State University, Dept. of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures |page=4 |oclc=47186443}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Kristophson, Jürgen |title=Vom Widersinn der Dialektologie: Gedanken zum Štokavischen |trans-title=Nonsense of Dialectology: Thoughts on Shtokavian |language=de |journal= Zeitschrift für Balkanologie |volume=36 |issue=2 |page=180 |year=2000 |issn=0044-2356}}</ref> Standard [[Slovene language|Slovene]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], and [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] are each based on a distinct dialect, but the Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian [[differences between Serbo-Croatian standard varieties|standard varieties]] of the [[Pluricentric language#Serbo-Croatian|pluricentric]] [[Serbo-Croatian language]] are all based on the same dialect, [[Shtokavian dialect|Shtokavian]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kordić |first=Snježana |author-link=Snježana Kordić |editor1-last=Krause |editor1-first=Marion |editor2-last=Sappok |editor2-first=Christian |title=Slavistische Linguistik 2002: Referate des XXVIII. Konstanzer Slavistischen Arbeitstreffens, Bochum 10.-12. September 2002 |series=Slavistishe Beiträge; vol. 434 |publisher=Otto Sagner |pages=97–148 |language=de |chapter=Pro und kontra: "Serbokroatisch" heute |trans-chapter=Pros and cons: "Serbo-Croatian" today |chapter-url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/430499.PRO_UND_KONTRA_SERBOKROATISCH.PDF |location=Munich |year=2004 |isbn=978-3-87690-885-4 |oclc=56198470 |ssrn=3434516 |id={{CROSBI|430499}} | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601174051/http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/430499.PRO_UND_KONTRA_SERBOKROATISCH.PDF|url-status=live |archive-date=1 June 2012 |url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/430499.PRO_UND_KONTRA_SERBOKROATISCH.PDF |access-date=9 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Blum |first=Daniel |year=2002 |language=de |title=Sprache und Politik : Sprachpolitik und Sprachnationalismus in der Republik Indien und dem sozialistischen Jugoslawien (1945–1991) |trans-title=Language and Policy: Language Policy and Linguistic Nationalism in the Republic of India and the Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1991) |series=Beiträge zur Südasienforschung; vol. 192 |location=Würzburg |publisher=Ergon |page=200 |isbn=978-3-89913-253-3 |oclc=51961066}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Gröschel |first=Bernhard |author-link=Bernhard Gröschel |year=2009 |language=de |title=Das Serbokroatische zwischen Linguistik und Politik: mit einer Bibliographie zum postjugoslavischen Sprachenstreit |trans-title=Serbo-Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics: With a Bibliography of the Post-Yugoslav Language Dispute |series=Lincom Studies in Slavic Linguistics; vol 34 |location=Munich |publisher=Lincom Europa |pages=82–83 |isbn=978-3-929075-79-3 |oclc=428012015 |lccn=2009473660 |ol=15295665W}}</ref> Therefore, [[Croats]], [[Serbs]], [[Bosniaks]] and [[Montenegrins]] [[Language secessionism#In Serbo-Croatian|communicate fluently]] with each other in their respective [[standard language|standardized varieties]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kordić |first=Snježana |author-link=Snježana Kordić |year=2010 |language=hr |title=Jezik i nacionalizam |trans-title=Language and Nationalism |url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/475567.Jezik_i_nacionalizam.pdf |url-status=live |series=Rotulus Universitas |location=Zagreb |publisher=Durieux |pages=74–77 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3467646 |isbn=978-953-188-311-5 |lccn=2011520778 |oclc=729837512 |ol=15270636W |id={{CROSBI|475567}} |archive-date=1 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601175359/http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/475567.Jezik_i_nacionalizam.pdf |access-date=15 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Pohl |first=Hans-Dieter |editor1-last=Ohnheiser |editor1-first=Ingeborg |title=Wechselbeziehungen zwischen slawischen Sprachen, Literaturen und Kulturen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart : Akten der Tagung aus Anlaß des 25jährigen Bestehens des Instituts für Slawistik an der Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, 25–27 Mai 1995 |series=Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft, Slavica aenipontana; vol. 4 |publisher=Non Lieu |pages=205–219 |language=de |chapter=Serbokroatisch – Rückblick und Ausblick |trans-chapter=Serbo-Croatian – Looking backward and forward |location=Innsbruck |year=1996 |oclc=243829127}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Šipka|first=Danko|author-link=Danko Sipka|year=2019|title=Lexical layers of identity: words, meaning, and culture in the Slavic languages|location=New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=166|doi=10.1017/9781108685795|isbn=978-953-313-086-6|s2cid=150383965|lccn=2018048005 |oclc=1061308790|quote=lexical differences between the ethnic variants are extremely limited, even when compared with those between closely related Slavic languages (such as standard Czech and Slovak, Bulgarian and Macedonian), and grammatical differences are even less pronounced. More importantly, complete understanding between the ethnic variants of the standard language makes translation and second language teaching impossible", leading Šipka "to consider it a pluricentric standard language}}</ref> In [[Croatia]], native speakers of Shtokavian may struggle to understand distinct [[Kajkavian]] or [[Chakavian]] dialects, as might the speakers of the two with each other.<ref>{{cite book|last=Škiljan |first=Dubravko| author-link=Dubravko Škiljan |year=2002 |language=hr |title=Govor nacije: jezik, nacija, Hrvati |trans-title=Voice of the Nation: Language, Nation, Croats |series=Biblioteka Obrisi moderne |location=Zagreb |publisher=Golden marketing | page=12 |oclc=55754615}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Paul-Louis |title=Le serbo-croate (bosniaque, croate, monténégrin, serbe): de l'étude d'une langue à l'identité des langues |trans-title=Serbo-Croatian (Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, Serbian): from the study of a language to the identity of languages |url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/slave_0080-2557_2002_num_74_2_6801 |language=fr |journal=Revue des études slaves |volume=74 |issue=2–3 |page=315 |year=2003 |issn=0080-2557}}</ref> Likewise in [[Serbia]], the [[Torlakian]] dialect differs significantly from Standard Serbian. Serbian is a Western South Slavic standard, but Torlakian is largely transitional with the Eastern South Slavic languages (Bulgarian and Macedonian). Collectively, the Torlakian dialects with Macedonian and Bulgarian share many grammatical features that set them apart from all other Slavic languages, such as the complete loss of its [[grammatical case]] systems and adoption of features more commonly found among [[analytic languages]]. The barrier between ''East South Slavic'' and ''West South Slavic'' is historical and natural, caused primarily by a one-time geographical distance between speakers. The two varieties started diverging early on ({{Circa|11th century CE}}) and evolved separately ever since without major mutual influence, as evidenced by distinguishable [[Old Bulgarian|Old Slavonic]], while the western dialect of common Old Slavic was still spoken across the modern Serbo-Croatian area in the 12th and early 13th centuries. An intermediate dialect linking western and eastern variations inevitably came into existence over time – [[Torlakian dialect|Torlakian]] – spoken across a wide radius on which the tripoint of [[Bulgaria]], [[North Macedonia]] and [[Serbia]] is relatively pivotal.
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