Editing Dog intelligence (section)

== Emotions ==
[[Image:Cautious dog.jpg|thumb|250px|Mix-breed dog showing curiosity and fear while staring at a cat.]]
Studies suggest that dogs feel complex emotions, like jealousy and anticipation.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/science/nature/7771259.stm | work=BBC News | title=Test reveals dogs' jealous side | date=2008-12-08 | access-date=2010-05-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| journal=PLOS ONE | volume=7 | issue=5 | pages=e38027 | title =Functional MRI in Awake Unrestrained Dogs | date=2012-05-11| doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0038027 | last1=Berns | first1=Gregory S. | last2=Brooks | first2=Andrew M. | last3=Spivak | first3=Mark | pmc=3350478 | pmid=22606363 | bibcode=2012PLoSO...738027B| doi-access=free }}</ref> However, behavioral evidence of seemingly human emotions must be interpreted with care. For example, in his 1996 book ''[[Good Natured]]'', [[ethology|ethologist]] [[Frans de Waal]] discusses an experiment on guilt and reprimands conducted on a female [[Siberian Husky]]. The dog had the habit of shredding newspapers, and when her owner returned home to find the shredded papers and scold her she would act guilty. However, when the owner himself shredded the papers without the dog's knowledge, the dog "acted just as 'guilty' as when she herself had created the mess." De Waal concludes that the dog did not display true guilt as humans understand it, but rather simply the anticipation of reprimand.<ref>{{cite book |last=de Waal |first=Frans |author-link=Frans de Waal |title=Good Natured |year=1996 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/goodnaturedorigi00waal/page/107 107–108] |isbn=978-0-674-35660-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/goodnaturedorigi00waal/page/107 }}</ref>

One limitation in the study of emotions in non-human animals, is that they cannot [[verbalize]] to express their [[feeling]]s. However, dogs' emotions can be studied indirectly through [[cognitive test]]s, called [[Cognitive bias in animals|cognitive bias test]], which measure a [[cognitive bias]] and allow to make inference about the [[Mood (psychology)|mood]] of the animal. Researchers have found that dogs suffering from [[Separation anxiety in dogs|separation anxiety]] have a more negative cognitive bias, compared to dogs without separation anxiety.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mendl|first1=Michael|last2=Brooks|first2=Julie|last3=Basse|first3=Christine|last4=Burman|first4=Oliver|last5=Paul|first5=Elizabeth|last6=Blackwell|first6=Emily|last7=Casey|first7=Rachel|title=Dogs showing separation-related behaviour exhibit a 'pessimistic' cognitive bias|journal=Current Biology|volume=20|issue=19|pages=R839–R840|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2010.08.030|pmid=20937467|year=2010|s2cid=8638509|doi-access=free|bibcode=2010CBio...20.R839M }}</ref> On the other hand, when dogs' separation anxiety is treated with medications and behavior therapy, their cognitive bias becomes less negative than before treatment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Karagiannis|first1=Christos I.|last2=Burman|first2=Oliver HP|last3=Mills|first3=Daniel S.|date=2015-03-28|title=Dogs with separation-related problems show a "less pessimistic" cognitive bias during treatment with fluoxetine (Reconcile™) and a behaviour modification plan|journal=BMC Veterinary Research|volume=11|pages=80|doi=10.1186/s12917-015-0373-1|pmid=25889323|pmc=4393593|issn=1746-6148 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Also administration of [[oxytocin]], rather than a [[placebo]], induces a more positive cognitive bias and positive expectation in dogs.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Kis|first1=Anna|last2=Hernádi|first2=Anna|last3=Kanizsár|first3=Orsolya|last4=Gácsi|first4=Márta|last5=Topál|first5=József|title=Oxytocin induces positive expectations about ambivalent stimuli (cognitive bias) in dogs|journal=Hormones and Behavior|volume=69|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.12.004|pmid=25530486|year=2015|s2cid=3723849|url=http://real.mtak.hu/25983/1/2015_Kis_etal_Hormones_and_Behavior_postprint.pdf}}</ref> It is therefore suggested that the cognitive bias test can be used to monitor positive emotional states and therefore welfare in dogs.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Piotti | first1 = P | year = 2017 | title = Positive emotions and quality of life in dogs | url = http://real.mtak.hu/73542/1/Piotti_2018_Positive%20emotions%20and%20quality%20of%20life%20in%20dogs.pdf | journal = Animal Sentience| volume = 2 | issue = 14| page = 17 | doi = 10.51291/2377-7478.1281 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

There is evidence that dogs can discriminate the emotional expressions of human faces.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Corsin A.|last1=Müller |first2=Kira|last2=Schmitt |first3=Anjuli L.A.|last3=Barber |first4=Ludwig|last4=Huber |title=Dogs can discriminate the emotional expressions of human faces |journal=Current Biology|volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=601–605|title-link=doi |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2014.12.055|pmid=25683806 |year=2015 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2015CBio...25..601M }}</ref> In addition, they seem to respond to faces in somewhat the same way as humans. For example, humans tend to gaze at the right side of a person's face, which may be related to the use of right brain hemisphere for facial recognition. Research indicates that dogs also fixate the right side of a human face, but not that of other dogs or other animals. Dogs are the only non-[[primate]] species known to do so.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=K Guo|author2=C Hall|author3=S Hall|author4=K Meints|author5=D Mills|title=Left gaze bias in human infants, rhesus monkeys, and domestic dogs|journal=Perception|year=2007|volume=36 ECVP|url=http://www.perceptionweb.com/abstract.cgi?id=v070385|access-date=24 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715064303/http://www.perceptionweb.com/abstract.cgi?id=v070385|archive-date=15 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>