Editing Graphology (section)

== Applications ==

=== Gender and handwriting ===
A 1991 review of the then-current literature concluded that respondents were able to predict the gender of handwriting between 57 and 78% of the time.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/0141192910170204|title=Sex Differences in Handwriting: A comment on Spear|year=1991|last1=Hartley|first1=James|journal=British Educational Research Journal|volume=17|issue=2|pages=141–145}}</ref> However, most of these samples, as well as subsequent studies, are based on small sample sizes that are collected non-randomly. A much larger and more recent survey of over 3,000 participants only found a classification accuracy of 54%.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://blog.survata.com/identifying-gender-by-handwriting-youre-probably-not-as-good-at-it-as-you-think#:~:text=Gender%20equality&text=Men%20identified%20male%20handwriting%20successfully,of%2049%25%20to%2045%25 |title=Identifying gender by handwriting — you're probably not as good at it as you think |access-date=2020-09-17 |archive-date=2020-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810042715/https://blog.survata.com/identifying-gender-by-handwriting-youre-probably-not-as-good-at-it-as-you-think#:~:text=Gender%20equality&text=Men%20identified%20male%20handwriting%20successfully,of%2049%25%20to%2045%25 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As statistical discrimination below 0.7 is generally considered unacceptable,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve in Diagnostic Test Assessment |journal=Journal of Thoracic Oncology |date=1 September 2010 |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=1315–1316 |doi=10.1097/JTO.0b013e3181ec173d |last1=Mandrekar |first1=Jayawant N. |pmid=20736804 |doi-access=free }}</ref> this indicates that most results are rather inaccurate,<ref>{{Cite book|doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-01424-7_60|chapter = Handwriting-Based Gender Classification Using End-to-End Deep Neural Networks|title = Artificial Neural Networks and Machine Learning – ICANN 2018|series = Lecture Notes in Computer Science|year = 2018|last1 = Illouz|first1 = Evyatar|last2 = (Omid) David|first2 = Eli|last3 = Netanyahu|first3 = Nathan S.|volume = 11141|pages = 613–621|arxiv = 1912.01816|isbn = 978-3-030-01423-0|s2cid = 52909281}}</ref> and that variation in results observed is likely due to sampling technique and bias.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bradley |first1=Sean |title=Handwriting and Gender: A multi-use data set |journal=Journal of Statistics Education |date=March 2015 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=1 |doi=10.1080/10691898.2015.11889721 |s2cid=123033133 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The reason for this bias varies; hypotheses are that biology contributes due to average differences in fine motor skills among males and females,<ref name="ReferenceB"/> and that differences arise from culture and gender bias.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1080/00224545.1996.9712254|title = Inferring Gender from Handwriting in Urdu and English|year = 1996|last1 = Hamid|first1 = Sarah|last2 = Loewenthal|first2 = Kate Miriam|journal = The Journal of Social Psychology|volume = 136|issue = 6|pages = 778–782|pmid = 9043207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/0141192890150304|title=Differences between the Written Work of Boys and Girls|year=1989|last1=Spear|first1=Margaret Goddard|journal=British Educational Research Journal|volume=15|issue=3|pages=271–277}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/00224540209603929|title=Judging Gender from Samples of Adult Handwriting: Accuracy and Use of Cues|year=2002|last1=Burr|first1=Vivien|journal=The Journal of Social Psychology|volume=142|issue=6|pages=691–700|pmid=12450344|s2cid=39650656}}</ref>

=== Employment profiling ===
A company takes a writing sample provided by an applicant, and does a personality profile, supposedly matching the congruence of the applicant with the ideal psychological profile of employees in the position. The applicant can also malpractice in this system; they may ask someone to write on their behalf.<ref>{{Citation
 |publisher    = Behavioral Profiling International
 |title        = Partial List of Characteristics Evaluated
 |url          = http://www.bpilab.com/Characteristics%20Evaluated.htm
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20040106055421/http://bpilab.com/Characteristics%20Evaluated.htm
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-date = 2004-01-06
 |access-date   = 2007-06-05
}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2022}}

A graphological report is meant to be used in conjunction with other tools, such as comprehensive background checks, practical demonstration or record of work skills. Graphology supporters state that it can complement but not replace traditional hiring tools.

Research in employment suitability has ranged from complete failure<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lighton |first=R.&nbsp;E. |title=A Graphological Examination of the Handwriting of Air Pilots|journal=Thesis in the Faculty of Arts |publisher=University of Pretoria|year=1934}}</ref> to guarded
success.<ref>{{Citation|author=Luca, E. S.|title=Major Aptitudes and Personality Characteristics of 42 Dental Students as Evaluated Through Their Handwriting|journal=New York Journal of Dentistry|year=1973|volume=43|issue=9|pages=281–83|pmid=4518182}}</ref>  The most substantial reason for not using handwriting analysis in the employment process is the absence of evidence of a direct link between handwriting analysis and various measures of job performance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Steven L. |last2=Vaught |first2=Steve |title=The write stuff: What the evidence says about using handwriting analysis in hiring |journal=SAM Advanced Management Journal |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=31–35 |date=September 2001}}</ref>

The use of graphology in the hiring process has been criticized on ethical<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Daryl |last=Koehn|title=Handwriting Analysis In Pre-Employment Screening|journal=The Online Journal of Ethics|volume=1|issue=1}}</ref> and legal grounds in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Julie |last=Spohn|title=The Legal Implications of Graphology|journal=Washington University Law Quarterly|volume=73|issue=3|date=Fall 1997}}</ref>

=== Psychological analysis ===
Graphology has been used clinically by counselors and psychotherapists. When it is used, it is generally used alongside other projective personality assessment tools, and not in isolation. It is often used within individual [[psychotherapy]], marital counseling, or vocational counseling.<ref>Poizner, Annette (2012). Clinical Graphology: An Interpretive Manual for Mental Health Practitioners. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publishers</ref>

===Marital compatibility===
In its simplest form only sexual expression and sexual response are examined. At its most complex, every aspect of an individual is examined for how it affects the other individual(s) within the relationship.<ref>Karohs, Erika (1994) SSS. Pebble Beach, CA</ref> The theory is that after knowing and understanding how each individual in the relationship differs from every other individual in the relationship, the resulting marriage will be more enduring. With a comparative analysis receiving and non-receiving parts responses are  measured.<ref>IGAS (1976) MGA. Chicago, IL: IGAS</ref>

=== Medical diagnosis ===
Medical graphology is probably the most controversial branch of handwriting analysis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ludewig |first1=Reinhard |last2=Dettweiler |first2=Christian |last3=Lewinson |first3=Thea Stein |title=Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Medizinischen Graphologie |trans-title=Possibilities and limits of medical graphology. Determination of current status and perspectives (I) |language=de |journal=Zeitschrift für die gesamte innere Medizin und ihre Grenzgebiete |date=December 1992 |volume=47 |issue=12 |pages=549–57 |pmid=1285461 }}</ref> Strictly speaking, such research is not graphology as described throughout this article but an examination of factors pertaining to [[motor control]]. Research studies have been conducted in which a detailed examination of handwriting factors, particularly timing, fluidity, and consistency of size, form, speed, and pressure are considered in the process of evaluating patients and their response to pharmacological therapeutic agents.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knopp |first1=W |last2=Paulson |first2=G |last3=Allen |first3=JN |last4=Smeltzer |first4=D |last5=Brown |first5=FD |last6=Kose |first6=W |title=Parkinson's disease: L-dopa treatment and handwriting area |journal=Current Therapeutic Research, Clinical and Experimental |date=March 1970 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=115–25 |pmid=4985489 }}</ref> The study of these phenomena is a by-product of researchers investigating motor control processes and the interaction of nervous, anatomical, and biomechanical systems of the body.

''The Vanguard Code of Ethical Practice'', amongst others, prohibits medical diagnosis by those not licensed to do diagnosis in the state in which they practice.

=== Graphotherapy ===
{{More medical citations needed|section|date=October 2014}}
''Graphotherapy'' is the pseudoscience of changing a person's handwriting with the goal of changing features of his or her personality, or "handwriting analysis in reverse."<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Shermer |editor-first=Michael |title=The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gr4snwg7iaEC&pg=PA119|volume=1|year=2002|publisher=Skeptic's Society|isbn=978-1-57607-653-8|page=119}}</ref> It originated in France during the 1930s, spreading to the United States in the late 1950s.<ref name="destpaul">{{Citation |last= de Sainte Columbe |first= Paul |title= Grapho Therapeutics: Pen and Pencil Therapy |location= Hollywood, CA |publisher= Paul de St Columbe Center |year= 1972 |edition= 2nd}}</ref> The purported therapy consists of a series of exercises similar to those taught in basic [[calligraphy]] courses, sometimes in conjunction with music or positive self-talk.