Editing History of the ancient Levant (section)

==Iron Age==

Despite the tumultuous beginning of the [[Iron Age]], the period a number of technological innovations spread, most notably [[Ferrous metallurgy#Ancient Near East|iron working]] and the [[Phoenician alphabet]], which was developed by the Phoenicians around the 11th century&nbsp;BC from the [[Proto-Sinaitic script|Old Canaanite]] script, possibly a hybrid of [[Hieroglyph]]s, [[Cuneiform]] and the mysterious [[Byblos syllabary]].<ref name=Cross1991>{{cite book |last1=Cross |first1=Frank Moore |title=The Invention and Development of the Alphabet |date=1991 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-9167-6 |pages=77–90}}</ref> The massive [[Bronze Age collapse|destruction at the end of the Bronze Age]] collapsed most major polities and city-states of the Bronze Age. The early Iron Age in [[Syria]] and [[Mesopotamia]] saw a dispersal of settlements and ruralization, with the appearance of large numbers of hamlets, villages, and farmsteads.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Tony J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DGne7r74GKUC |title=Archaeological Landscapes of the Near East |date= November 2003|publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=978-0-8165-2173-9 |language=en}}</ref>

=== North ===
[[File:Aramean states.png|thumb|Aramaean states in eastern Syria and Mesopotamia]]

Following the LBA collapse, much of Syria was dominated by [[Aramaeans|Aramean]] tribes and states, who quickly expanded and settled throughout Syria, perhaps incorporating remnants of the older Amorites, and [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Edward">{{cite book |last1=Lipiński |first1=Edward |title=The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion |date=2000 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=9789042908598 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrMKKtiBBI4C}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Younger |first=Kenneth Lawson |title=A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities |year=2016 |location=Atlanta |publisher=SBL Press |isbn=9781628370843 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpgsDQAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Younger |first=Kenneth Lawson |chapter=Reflections on Hazael’s Empire in Light of Recent Study in the Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts |title=Writing and Rewriting History in Ancient Israel and Near Eastern Cultures |year=2020 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=79–102 |isbn=9783447113632 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0t9CzQEACAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Hafþórsson2006">{{cite book|author=Sigurður Hafþórsson|title=A Passing Power: An Examination of the Sources for the History of Aram-Damascus in the Second Half of the Ninth Century B.C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=33SgAAAAMAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell International|isbn=978-91-22-02143-8|page=61}}</ref> The pastoral expansion of the Arameans in the [[Assyria]]n regions quickly brought them into conflict with the Assyrians, whose dominion in upper Mesopotamia consequently came to an end (ca. 1114–1056 BCE).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Younger |first=Kenneth Lawson |chapter=The Late Bronze Age/Iron Age Transition and the Origins of the Arameans |title=Ugarit at Seventy-Five |year=2007 |location=Winona Lake |publisher=Eisenbrauns |pages=131–174 |isbn=9781575061436 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3xbHT7ZiAtUC&pg=PA131}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Younger |first=Kenneth Lawson |chapter=War and Peace in the Origins of the Arameans |title=Krieg und Frieden im Alten Vorderasien |year=2014 |location=Münster |publisher=Ugarit Verlag |pages=861–874 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/9122190}}</ref> Aramean infiltration also extended into southern Mesopotamia, where their presence was felt by cities in central [[Babylonia]] as early as the 10th century.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Arnold |first1=Bill |title=Aramean Origins: The Evidence from Babylonia |url=https://www.academia.edu/3261382 |website=Academia}}</ref> Some of the major Aramaean kingdoms included [[Aram-Damascus]], [[Hamath]], [[Bet-Adini]], [[Samʾal]], [[Bet-Bagyan]], [[Aram-Zobah]], [[Bet-Zamani]] and [[Bet-Halupe]].<ref name="Edward" /> In northern Syria, the dispersal of the Hittites and expansion of Aramaeans gave rise to a conglomeration of [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]] and [[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]]-speaking kingdoms known as the [[Syro-Hittite states]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hawkins|first=John David|chapter=The end of the Bronze age in Anatolia: New Light from Recent Discoveries|title=Anatolian Iron Ages|year=1994|volume=3|location=London-Ankara|publisher=British Institute of Archeology at Ankara|pages=91–94|isbn=9781912090693|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ElHDwAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hawkins|first=John David|chapter=Karkamish and Karatepe: Neo-Hittite City-States in North Syria|title=Civilizations of the Ancient Near East|year=1995a|volume=2|location=New York|publisher=Simon & Schuster Macmillan|pages=1295–1307|isbn=9780684197210|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TY3rAAAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hawkins|first=John David|chapter=Great Kings and Country Lords at Malatya and Karkamiš|title=Studio Historiae Ardens: Ancient Near Eastern Studies|year=1995b|location=Istanbul|publisher=Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul|pages=75–86|isbn=9789062580750|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S0QsAQAAIAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hawkins|first=John David|chapter=The Political Geography of North Syria and South-East Anatolia in the Neo-Assyrian Period|title=Neo-Assyrian Geography|year=1995c|location=Roma|publisher=Università di Roma|pages=87–101|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IaoMAQAAMAAJ}}</ref>

The [[Chaldea]]ns, another West Semitic-speaking group from the Levant, infiltrated Babylonia after the Aramaeans (ca. 940–860 BC), where they were actively involved in rebellion against the Assyrians.<ref name="Edward"/> [[Assyria]]n texts of the 9th century BC further mention the [[History of Arabs|Arabs]] (''Aribi''), who inhabited swaths of land in the [[Levant]] and in [[Babylonia]]n border region in a similar suit to the Aramaeans, their presence seemingly intermingled.<ref name="Retso">{{cite book |last1=Retso |first1=Jan |title=The Arabs in Antiquity Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads |date=2013 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-136-87282-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9RN6gE8z40C}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sBxRvmw2pDsC&q=Petra+Equini+nabatean|title=Petra|first1=Maria Giulia Amadasi|last1=Guzzo|first2=Eugenia Equini|last2=Schneider|first3=Lydia G.|last3=Cochrane|edition=Illustrated|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=2002|isbn=9780226311258}}</ref><ref name="Edward" /> In Laqe near [[Terqa]], a mix of Arab and Aramaean tribes settled the lower [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur valley]] in 12th century BC, forming a confederation comparable to other tribal leagues of the time.<ref name="Edward" />

Along the coast of northern Canaan, the [[Phoenicia]]n city-states managed to escape the destruction that ensued in the Late Bronze Age collapse and developed into commercial maritime powers with established colonies across the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref name="Aubet" /> These colonies stretched into [[Sardinia]], [[North Africa]], [[Cyprus]], [[Sicily]], [[Malta]] and [[Iberia]].<ref name="Aubet" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chamorro |first1=Javier G. |date=1987 |title=Survey of Archaeological Research on Tartessos |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=91 |issue=2 |pages=197–232 |doi=10.2307/505217 |jstor=505217 |s2cid=191378720}}</ref> One prominent colony, [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]] (from [[Punic language|Punic]] {{lang|xpu|qrt-ḥdšt}}, meaning 'New City'), would eventually become an independent city-state which quarrelled with the [[Roman Republic]] over control of the Mediterranean.<ref name="Aubet2008">{{cite web |author=Maria Eugenia Aubet |year=2008 |title=Political and Economic Implications of the New Phoenician Chronologies |url=http://www.upf.edu/larq/_pdf/AubtCrono.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211024112/http://www.upf.edu/larq/_pdf/AubtCrono.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2013 |access-date=24 February 2013 |publisher=Universidad Pompeu Fabra |page=179 |quote=The recent radiocarbon dates from the earliest levels in Carthage situate the founding of this Tyrian colony in the years 835–800 cal BC, which coincides with the dates handed down by Flavius Josephus and Timeus for the founding of the city.}}</ref><ref name="Aubet" /><ref name="Markoe2000">{{cite book |author=Glenn Markoe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smPZ-ou74EwC |title=Phoenicians |publisher=University of California Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-520-22614-2 |page=55}}</ref>
The Phoenicians transmitted their alphabetic system across the maritime networks, which was eventually adopted and developed into [[Greek alphabet]] and [[Latin alphabet]].<ref name="Aubet" />

=== South ===
[[File:Kingdoms around Israel 830 map.svg|thumb|Kingdoms of the southern Levant c. 9th century BC]]
In the southern Levant, [[Nomadic pastoralism|pastoral nomadic]] tribal groups began to settle down at the start of the 11th century. These included the [[Israelites]] in the Cisjordan and the [[Ammon]]ites, [[Moab]]ites and [[Edom]]ites in the [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Avraham |first=Faust |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1017604304 |title=The Oxford illustrated history of the Holy Land |date=2018 |others=Robert G. Hoyland, H. G. M. Williamson |isbn=978-0-19-872439-1 |edition=1st |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=9–11 |chapter=The Birth of Israel |oclc=1017604304}}</ref> The Philistines, a group of [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] immigrants arrived at the shores of [[Canaan]] circa 1175 BCE and settled there.<ref name=":02"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Drews |first=Robert |title=The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe of ca. 1200 B.C |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-691-04811-6 |location=Princeton, New Jersey |author-link=Robert Drews}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Killebrew |first=Ann E. |title=The Philistines and Other "Sea Peoples" in Text and Archaeology |date=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBCl2IQfNioC&pg=PA1 |work=Society of Biblical Literature Archaeology and biblical studies |volume=15 |publisher=Society of Biblical Lit |isbn=978-1-58983-721-8}}</ref>

During the seventh century BC, no fewer than eight nations were settled in the southern Levant. These included the [[Arameans]] of the kingdom of [[Geshur]]; the [[Samaritans]] who replaced the Israelite kingdom in [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]]; the [[Phoenicia]]ns in the northern cities and parts of [[Galilee]]; the [[Philistines]] in the [[Philistia|Philistine pentapolis]]; the three kingdoms of the [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]]– [[Ammon]], [[Moab]] and [[Edom]]; and the Judaeans of [[Kingdom of Judah]].<ref>Stern, Ephraim. "The Religious Revolution in Persian-Period Judah". ''Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period'', edited by Oded Lipschits and Manfred Oeming, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2006, pp. 199-206. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781575065618-011</ref><ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/949151323 |title=The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |isbn=978-1-58983-910-6 |pages=74 |oclc=949151323}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lemaire |first=André |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1017604304 |title=The Oxford Illustrated History of the Holy Land |date=2018 |others=Robert G. Hoyland, H. G. M. Williamson |isbn=978-0-19-872439-1 |edition=1st |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=61–85 |chapter=Israel and Judah |oclc=1017604304}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lipiński |first=Edward |title=On the Skirts of Canaan in the Iron Age: Historical and Topographical Researches |date=2006 |publisher=[[Peeters Publishers]] |isbn=978-9-042-91798-9 |series=Orientalia Lovaniensia analecta |volume=153 |location=[[Leuven]], [[Belgium]] |page= |author-link=Edward Lipiński (orientalist)}}</ref><ref name="AEM">{{cite conference |last1=LaBianca |first1=Oystein S. |last2=Younker |first2=Randall W. |date=1995 |title=The Kingdoms of Ammon, Moab, and Edom: The Archaeology of Society in Late Bronze/Iron Age Transjordan (ca. 1400–500 BCE) |url=https://www.academia.edu/744029 |publisher=Leicester University Press |page=114 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809031715/https://www.academia.edu/744029 |archive-date=9 August 2021 |access-date=16 June 2018 |book-title=The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land |editor=Thomas Levy |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Foreign rule===
====Under Assyrians====
[[File:Tiglath-Pileser map.png|thumb|Map of the Neo-Assyrian Empire before (purple) and after (purple and blue) Tiglath-Pileser's reign (745–727 BC)<ref name="Frahm">{{cite book|last=Frahm|first=Eckart|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ|title=A Companion to Assyria|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2017|isbn=978-1118325247|editor=E. Frahm|location=Hoboken |chapter=The Neo-Assyrian Period (ca. 1000–609 BCE)|pages=161–208}}</ref>]]

In the [[Iron Age]], the Levant was characterized by patches of scattered kingdoms and tribal confederations which originated from the same cultural and linguistic milieu.<ref name="Porter">{{cite journal |last1=Porter |first1=Benjamin W. |title=Assembling the Iron Age Levant: The Archaeology of Communities, Polities, and Imperial Peripheries |journal=Journal of Archaeological Research |date=2016 |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=373–420 |doi=10.1007/s10814-016-9093-8 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10814-016-9093-8}}</ref> Occasionally, these peoples united against expansion from neighboring regions, notably in the [[Battle of Qarqar]] (853 BC) which saw an alliance of Aramaeans, [[Phoenicia]]ns, Israelites, Ammonites and Arabs united against the Assyrians under [[Shalmaneser III]] (859–824 BC).<ref>Shea, William H. "A Note on the Date of the Battle of Qarqar." ''Journal of Cuneiform Studies'', vol. 29, no. 4, 1977, pp. 240–242</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Gabriel|first=Richard A.|author-link=Richard A. Gabriel|title=The Great Armies of Antiquity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1ngxn_xTOIC&pg=PA129|year=2002|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|isbn=978-0-275-97809-9|page=129}}</ref> The alliance, led by [[Hadadezer]] of [[Aram-Damascus]], succeeded in halting the Assyrian army boasting 120,000 soldiers active in Syria.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Healy |first1=Mark |title=The Ancient Assyrians: Empire and Army, 883–612 BC |date=2023 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=9781472848079 |url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/ancient-assyrians-9781472848079/}}</ref><ref name="Retso" />

By 843 BC the political situation in central and southern Syria changed radically, after [[Hazael]] succeeded Hadadzer as king of Aram-Damascus. The anti-Assyrian alliance dissolved, and former allies of Aram-Damascus turned into enemies.<ref name="Edward" /> In 842, Hazael invaded the northern parts of the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] and reportedly penetrated into the coastal planes as far as [[Ashdod|Asdod]], seizing [[Gilead]] and [[eastern Jordan]] in the process.<ref name="Edward" /> Hazael survived Assyrian attempts to subjugate Aram-Damascus and also expanded his influence in northern Syria, where he reportedly crossed the [[Orontes River|Orontes river]] and seized territories as far as [[Aleppo]].<ref name="Edward" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Hasegawa |first=Shuichi |title=Aram and Israel during the Jehuite Dynasty |date=2012-07-04 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110283488/html |access-date=2023-11-30 |publisher=De Gruyter |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110283488 |isbn=978-3-11-028348-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="FreedmanMyers2000">{{cite book|author1=David Noel Freedman|author2=Allen C. Myers|title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA84|date=31 December 2000|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=978-90-5356-503-2|page=84}}</ref><ref>[http://digital.library.stonybrook.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/amar/id/139862/rec/44 Arslan-Tash. v. 1] p.135: "Trois fragments d'une lamelle d'ivoire portant une ligne de texte en caractères araméens. Ces fragments ont été trouvés aux environs immédiats des cadres décrits plus haut p. 89 et suiv."</ref> These northern forays allowed Hazael to control much of Syria and Palestine, from [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Egypt]] to the [[Euphrates]].<ref name="Ghantous">{{cite book |last1=Ghantous |first1=Hadi |title=The Elisha-Hazael Paradigm and the Kingdom of Israel: The Politics of God in Ancient Syria-Palestine |date=2014 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781317544357 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_bOBAAAQBAJ}}</ref> Hazael's power far exceeded that of former Aramean kings, and some scholars consider his state to have been a nascent empire.<ref name="Ghantous" />

The Assyrians managed to subdue the Levantine states after multiple campaigns that were finalized by [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] (745–727 BC).<ref name="territories"/><ref name="Edward"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Elayi|first=Josette|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ|title=Tiglath-pileser III, Founder of the Assyrian Empire|publisher=SBL Press|year=2022|isbn=978-1628374308|location=Atlanta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Davenport|first=T. L.|title=Situation and Organisation: The Empire Building of Tiglath-Pileser III (745-728 BC)|date=2016|degree=PhD|publisher=University of Sydney |url=https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/handle/2123/15464/2016_Tracy_Davenport_thesis.pdf?sequence=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Bagg|first=Ariel M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ|title=A Companion to Assyria|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2017|isbn=978-1118325247|editor=E. Frahm|location=Hoboken |chapter=Assyria and the West: Syria and the Levant|pages=268–274}}</ref><ref name="Frahm" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dubovský|first=Peter|date=2006|title=Tiglath-pileser III's Campaigns in 734-732 B.C.: Historical Background of Isa 7; 2 Kgs 15-16 and 2 Chr 27-28|journal=Biblica|volume=87|issue=2|pages=153–170 |jstor=42614666}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Radner|first=Karen|date=2012|title=Tiglath-pileser III, king of Assyria (744-727 BC)|url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/kings/tiglatpileseriii/|access-date=9 February 2022|website=Assyrian empire builders}}</ref> Consolidation of Assyrian rule was followed by numerous revolts throughout the Levant, including division along pro- and anti-Assyrian axes, and intra-Levantine conflict in the [[Syro-Ephraimite War]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Niehr |first1=Herbert |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |date=2014 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004229433}}</ref> The anti-Assyrian axis included [[Aram-Damascus|Damascus]]–[[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]–[[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Samaria]]–the Arabs; and a pro-Assyrian axis which included [[Arwad]], [[Ascalon|Ashqalon]] and [[Gaza City|Gaza]] joined by [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], Ammon, Moab and Edom.<ref name="Retso" /> The anti-Assyrian forces were eventually crushed by 732 BC.<ref name="Retso" /> Aram-Damascus was annexed and its population was deported; [[Hama]]th was razed to the ground and Arameans were prohibited from rebuilding it;<ref name="Hawkins">Hawkins, J.D. "Hamath." ''Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie'', Vol. 4. Walter de Gruyter, 1975.</ref> the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] based in [[Samaria]] was destroyed and, according to [[Bible|Biblical]] accounts, the city's population was deported into [[Assyrian captivity]].<ref>"Hamath Wrecked to Terrify Small Opponents of Assyria" ''The Science News-Letter''. 39:13 (29 March 1941:205–206.)</ref>

The fierce resistance and fighting capabilities of the Arameans convinced the Assyrian kings to incorporate them into the army, namely the tribes of Gurru and Itu'u.<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Uotila|first=Repekka|title=Arameans in the Neo-Assyrian Empire: Approaching Ethnicity and Groupness with Social Network Analysis|date=2021|degree=Master's|publisher=University of Helsinki |url=https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstreams/e069cbac-52e9-4a8f-b7dd-79d0854b36b3/download}}</ref> By the time of [[Shalmaneser V]] (727–722 BC), these tribes were an essential part of the empire, and were given the task of securing the empire's peripheries. The Aramaean identity of these tribes probably contributed to the consolidation of [[Aramaic]]'s prestigious status as the empire's ''[[lingua franca]]''.<ref name="territories">{{cite book |last1=Dušek |first1=Jan |last2=Mynářová |first2=Jana |title=Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th – 8th Centuries B.C.E. |date=2019 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004398535}}</ref>

====Under Neo-Babylonians====
After the [[Battle of Carchemish]], which effectively annihilated Assyrian resistance and [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Egypt]]ian intervention, Nebuchadnezzar II [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|besieged Jerusalem]] and destroyed the Temple (597 BC), starting the period of the [[Babylonian captivity]], which lasted about half a century. Nebuchadnezzar also [[Siege of Tyre (586–573 BC)|besieged]] the Phoenician city of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] for 13 years (586–573 BC).

The subsequent balance of power was, however, short-lived. In the 550s&nbsp;BC, the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenids]] revolted against the Medes and gained control of their empire, and over the next few decades annexed the realms of [[Lydia]], [[Damascus]], [[Babylonia]], and Egypt into their empire, consolidating control as far as [[India]]. This vast kingdom was divided up into various [[satrap]]ies and governed roughly according to the Assyrian model, but with a far lighter hand. [[Babylon]] became one the empire's four capitals, and the lingua franca was [[Aramaic]]. Around this time [[Zoroastrianism]] became the predominant religion in [[Iran|Persia]].