Editing Linus Pauling (section)

===Nuclear activism===

The aftermath of the [[Manhattan Project]] and his wife Ava's pacifism changed Pauling's life profoundly, and he became a peace activist.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

In June 1945, a "May-Johnson Bill" began<ref>{{Citation |title=Part VI: The Manhattan District in Peacetime: The May-Johnson Bill |date=1998 |url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/mp/p6s6.shtml |publisher=Atomic Archive |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Atomic Energy Commission |date=November 18, 2016 |url=https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/atomic-energy-commission |publisher=Atomic Heritage Foundation |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Roy Glauber & Priscilla McMillan on Oppenheimer – Atomic Energy Commission |date=June 6, 2013 |url=https://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/roy-glauber-priscilla-mcmillan-oppenheimer |publisher=Voices of the Manhattan Project |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref> that would become the [[Atomic Energy Act of 1946]] (signed August 1, 1946). In November 1945, Pauling spoke to the [[Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions]] (ICCASP) on [[atomic weapons]]; shortly after, wife Ava and he accepted membership.<ref name="PaulingICCASP">{{Citation |title=The Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions |date=2009 |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2010/07/15/the-independent-citizens-committee-for-the-arts-sciences-and-professions/ |publisher=Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref>  On January 21, 1946, the group met to discuss [[academic freedom]], during which Pauling said, "There is, of course, always a threat to academic freedom – as there is to the other aspects of the freedom and rights of the individual, in the continued attacks which are made on this freedom, these rights, by the selfish, the overly ambitious, the misguided, the unscrupulous, who seek to oppress the great body of mankind in order that they themselves may profit – and we must always be on the alert against this threat, and must fight it with vigor when it becomes dangerous."<ref name=PaulingICCASP/>

In 1946, he joined the [[Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists]], chaired by [[Albert Einstein]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=November 29, 2007 |title=Einstein |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page9.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> Its mission was to warn the public of the dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons.
[[File:Letter from Ruth B. Shipley, Chief Passport Division, Department of State (United States) to Linus Pauling on February 14, 1952.jpg|thumb|Denial letter from [[Ruth B. Shipley]], Chief Passport Division, Department of State to Linus Pauling on February 14, 1952]]
His political activism prompted the [[United States Department of State|US State Department]] to deny him a passport in 1952, when he was invited to speak at a scientific conference in London.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling |url=http://usstampgallery.com/view.php?id=3228fbec24ea876e8035f61b5fcd643af29a611c |access-date=June 2, 2015 |website=U.S. Stamp Gallery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=May 1952 |title=The Department of State and the Structure of Proteins |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/notes/1952a.18.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> In a speech before the [[US Senate]] on June 6 of the same year, Senator [[Wayne Morse]] publicly denounced the action of the State Department, and urged the Passport Division to reverse its decision. Pauling and his wife Ava were then issued a "limited passport" to attend the conference.<ref>Robert Paradowski (2011), Oregon State University, Special Collections p.18, [http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page18.html Proteins, Passports, and the Prize (1950–1954)], retrieved February 1, 2013</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=sg0AAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA255 Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Vol. VIII, Nr. 7] (Okt. 1952) p. 254, Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.</ref> His full passport was restored in 1954, shortly before the ceremony in [[Stockholm]] where he received his first Nobel Prize.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Joining Einstein, [[Bertrand Russell]] and eight other leading scientists and intellectuals, he signed the [[Russell-Einstein Manifesto]] issued July 9, 1955.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |date=November 29, 2007 |title=Russell/Einstein |author-link=Thomas Hager |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page25.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> He also supported the [[Mainau Declaration]]  of July 15, 1955, signed by 52 Nobel Prize laureates.<ref name="Snow">{{Cite book |last=Hermann |first=Armin |title=The new physics: the route into the atomic age: in memory of Albert Einstein, Max von Laue, Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner |date=1979 |publisher=Inter Nationes |location=Bonn-Bad Godesberg |page=130}}</ref>

In May 1957, working with  [[Washington University in St. Louis]] professor [[Barry Commoner]], Pauling began to circulate a petition among scientists to stop nuclear testing.<ref name="Tooth">{{Cite web |title=The Baby Tooth Survey |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/tag/committee-for-nuclear-information/ |access-date=June 1, 2011 |website=The Pauling Blog}}</ref>  On January 15, 1958, Pauling and his wife presented a petition to United Nations Secretary General [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] calling for an end to [[nuclear testing|the testing of nuclear weapons]].  It was signed by 11,021 scientists representing fifty countries.<ref name="NobelLecture">{{Cite web |title=The Nobel Peace Prize 1962 Linus Pauling: Nobel Lecture |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1962/pauling-lecture.html |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=Nobel Prize.org}}</ref><ref name="NobelBlog">{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Receives the Nobel Peace Prize |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/tag/united-nations-bomb-test-petition/ |access-date=December 10, 2013 |website=The Pauling Blog}}</ref>

In February 1958, Pauling participated in a publicly televised debate with the atomic physicist [[Edward Teller]] about the actual probability of fallout causing mutations.<ref name="Moore">{{Cite book |last=Moore |first=Kelly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qlBCTlVq_0EC&pg=PA113 |title=Disrupting science : social movements, American scientists, and the politics of the military, 1945–1975 |date=2008 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11352-4 |location=Princeton |page=113 |access-date=May 28, 2015}}</ref>  Later in 1958, Pauling published ''No more war!'', in which he not only called for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons but also an end to war itself. He proposed that a World Peace Research Organization be set up as part of the United Nations to "attack the problem of preserving the peace".<ref name="Nobel" />

Pauling also supported the work of the St. Louis Citizen's Committee for Nuclear Information (CNI).<ref name=Tooth/> This group, headed by [[Barry Commoner]], Eric Reiss,  M. W. Friedlander and John Fowler, organized a longitudinal study to measure radioactive [[strontium]]-90 in the [[baby teeth]] of children across North America.  The "[[Baby Tooth Survey]]", published by [[Louise Reiss]], demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in the form of [[nuclear fallout|radioactive fallout]] spread primarily via milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reiss |first=Louise Zibold |author-link=Louise Reiss |date=November 24, 1961 |title=Strontium-90 Absorption by Deciduous Teeth: Analysis of teeth provides a practicable method of monitoring strontium-90 uptake by human populations |journal=Science |volume=134 |issue=3491 |pages=1669–1673 |doi=10.1126/science.134.3491.1669 |pmid=14491339}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=November 29, 2007 |title=Strontium-90 |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page26.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=November 29, 2007 |title=The Right to Petition |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page27.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref>  The Committee for Nuclear Information is frequently credited for its significant contribution to supporting the test ban,<ref name="McCormick">{{Cite book |last=McCormick |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xC16yGp9-HUC&pg=PA70 |title=Reclaiming paradise : the global environmental movement |date=1991 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-20660-2 |edition=1st Midland |location=Bloomington |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref> as is the ground-breaking research conducted by Reiss and the "Baby Tooth Survey".<ref name="activism">{{Cite book |last1=Allen |first1=Garland E. |author1-link=Garland E. Allen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7axYHFEomgMC&pg=PA302 |title=Science, history and social activism : a tribute to Everett Mendelsohn |last2=MacLeod |first2=Roy M. |date=2001 |publisher=Kluwer Academic |isbn=978-1-4020-0495-7 |location=Dordrecht |page=302 |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref>

Public pressure and the frightening results of the CNI research led to a moratorium on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]], signed in 1963 by [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Nikita Khrushchev]].  On the day that the treaty went into force, October 10, 1963, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded Pauling the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for 1962.  (No prize had previously been awarded for that year.)<ref name="PaloAlto">{{Cite news |date=October 10, 1963 |title=Nobel Peace Prize Awarded to Pauling |work=Palo Alto Times |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/newsclips/1963n.30.html |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref>  They described him as "Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only against nuclear weapons tests, not only against the spread of these armaments, not only against their very use, but against all warfare as a means of solving international conflicts."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=October 10, 1963 |title=Notes by Linus Pauling. October 10, 1963 |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/notes/rnb23-100.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref>  Pauling himself acknowledged his wife Ava's deep involvement in peace work, and regretted that she was not awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with him.<ref name="LPIBio">{{Cite web |date=May 9, 2014 |title=Linus Pauling Biography |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/linus-pauling-biography |access-date=June 2, 2015 |website=Linus Pauling Institute}}</ref>