Editing Mahmud II (section)

===Legal reforms===
Among his reforms are the edicts (or [[firman (decree)|firman]]s), by which he closed the Court of Confiscations, and took away much of the power of the [[Pasha]]s.
[[File:Khalili Collection Islamic Art CAL-0334.jpg|thumb|right|Poem in praise of the prophet [[Muhammad]], calligraphed and signed by Mahmud II<ref>{{Cite web|title=Calligraphic Panel|url=https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/islamic-art/khalili-collection-islamic-art-calligraphic-panel-cal334/|access-date=12 April 2021|website=Khalili Collections|language=en-US}}</ref>]]
Previous to the first of the firmans, the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the crown; and a sordid motive for acts of cruelty was thus kept in perpetual operation, besides the encouragement of a host of vile [[delator]]s.

The second firman removed the ancient rights of Turkish governors to doom men to instant death by their will; the ''Paşas'', the ''Ağas'', and other officers, were enjoined that "they should not presume to inflict, themselves, the punishment of death on any man, whether Raya or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the [[Kadı]], and regularly signed by the judge." Mahmud also created an appeal system whereby a criminal could lodge an appeal to one of the Kazasker (chief military judge) of Asia or Europe, and finally to the Sultan himself, if the criminal chose to pursue the appeal even further.

About the same time that Mahmud II ordained these changes, he personally set an example of reform by regularly attending the Divan, or state council, instead of abstaining from attendance. The practice of the Sultan avoiding the Divan had been introduced as long ago as the reign of [[Suleiman the Magnificent|Suleiman I]], and was considered one of the causes of the decline of the Empire by a Turkish historian nearly two centuries before Mahmud II's time.

Mahmud II also addressed some of the worst abuses connected with the [[vakıf]]s, by placing their revenues under state administration (see [[Ministry of Evkaf]]). However, he did not venture to apply this vast mass of property to the general purposes of the government. His modernizations included the relaxation of much of the restrictions on [[alcoholic beverage]]s in the Empire, and the sultan himself was known to drink socially with his ministers.<ref name="Rogan2002" /> By the end of his reign, his reforms had mostly normalized drinking among the upper classes and political figures in the Empire.<ref name="Rogan2002" />

The financial situation of the Empire was troubling during his reign, and certain social classes had long been under the oppression of heavy taxes. In dealing with the complicated questions that therefore arose, Mahmud II is considered to have demonstrated the best spirit of the best of the [[Köprülü family|Köprülüs]]. A firma dated 22 February 1834, abolished the vexatious charges which public functionaries, when traversing the provinces, had long been accustomed to take from the inhabitants. By the same edict, all collection of money, except for the two regular half-yearly periods, was denounced as abuses. "No one is ignorant," said Sultan Mahmud II in this document, "that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavour unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquility. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders."

The ''[[haraç]]'', or capitation-tax, though moderate and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny through the insolence and misconduct of the government collectors. The firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it and ordained that it should be raised by a commission composed of the ''Kadı'', the Muslim governors, and the ''Ayans'', or municipal chiefs of ''Rayas'' in each district. Many other financial improvements were affected. By another important series of measures, the administrative government was simplified and strengthened, and a large number of sinecure offices were abolished. Sultan Mahmud II provided a valuable personal example of good sense, and economy, organising the imperial household, suppressing all titles without duties, and all salaried officials without functions.