Editing Old English (section)

== Literature ==
{{Main|Old English literature}}
[[File:Beowulf Cotton MS Vitellius A XV f. 132r.jpg|thumb|The first page of the ''Beowulf'' manuscript with its opening<br />{{lang|ang|Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon...}}<br />"Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the nation-kings..."]]

The corpus of Old English literature is small but still significant, with some 400 surviving manuscripts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon |last=Ker |first=N. R. |publisher=Clarendon |year=1957 |location=Oxford}}</ref> The pagan and Christian streams mingle in Old English, one of the richest and most significant bodies of literature preserved among the early Germanic peoples.<ref name="Baugh1951" /> In his supplementary article to the 1935 posthumous edition of Bright's ''Anglo-Saxon Reader'', James Hulbert writes:

{{blockquote|In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogues of monastic libraries do not help us, and there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts.}}

Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature are ''[[Beowulf]]'', an [[epic poem]]; the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'', a record of early English history; the [[Franks Casket]], an inscribed early whalebone artefact; and [[Cædmon's Hymn]], a Christian religious poem. There are also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as [[Bede]] and [[Cædmon]]. Cædmon, the earliest English poet known by name, served as a lay brother in the monastery at Whitby.<ref name="Baugh1951" />

=== ''Beowulf'' ===
{{original research section|date=December 2024}}
The first example is taken from the opening lines of ''Beowulf'', a work with around 3,000 lines.<ref name="Baugh1951" /> This passage describes how [[Hrothgar]]'s legendary ancestor [[Scyld]] was found as a baby, washed ashore, and adopted by a noble family. The translation is literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old English prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of the feel of the original poem.

The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words in brackets are explanations of words that have slightly different meanings in a modern context. ''What'' is used by the poet where a word like ''lo'' or ''behold'' would be expected. This usage is similar to ''what-ho!'', both an expression of surprise and a call to attention.

English poetry is based on stress and alliteration. In alliteration, the first consonant in a word alliterates with the same consonant at the beginning of another word, as with {{lang|ang|'''G'''ār-Dena}} and {{lang|ang|'''ġ'''eār-dagum}}. Vowels alliterate with any other vowel, as with {{lang|ang|'''æ'''þelingas}} and {{lang|ang|'''e'''llen}}. In the text below, the letters that alliterate are bolded.

{| cellspacing="10"
! scope="col" | {{numero}}
! scope="col" style="width:35%" | Original
! scope="col" style="width:65%" | Representation with [[Constructed language#A posteriori language|constructed]] [[cognate]]s
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 1 || {{lang|ang|Hƿæt! ƿē '''G'''ār-Dena in '''ġ'''eār-dagum,}}
| What! We of Gare-Danes''' (lit. Spear-Danes)''' in yore-days,
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''þ'''ēod-cyninga, '''þ'''rym ġefrūnon,}}
| of thede''' (nation/people)'''-kings, did thrum''' (glory)''' frain''' (learn about by asking)''',
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|hū ðā '''æ'''þelingas '''e'''llen fremedon.}}
| how those athelings''' (noblemen)''' did ellen '''(fortitude/courage/zeal)''' freme''' (promote)'''.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|Oft '''Sc'''yld '''Sc'''ēfing '''sc'''eaþena þrēatum,}}
| Oft did Scyld Scefing of scather threats''' (troops)''',
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 5 || {{lang|ang|'''m'''onegum '''m'''ǣġþum, '''m'''eodosetla oftēah,}}
| of many maegths''' (clans; cf. Irish cognate Mac-)''', of meadsettees atee '''(deprive)''',
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''e'''gsode '''eo'''rlas. Syððan '''ǣ'''rest ƿearð}}
| [and] ugg''' (induce loathing in, terrify; related to "ugly")''' earls. Sith '''(since, as of when)''' erst''' (first)''' [he] worthed''' (became)'''
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''f'''ēasceaft '''f'''unden, hē þæs '''f'''rōfre ġebād,}}
| [in] fewship''' (destitute)''' found, he of this frover''' (comfort)''' abode,
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''ƿ'''ēox under '''ƿ'''olcnum, '''ƿ'''eorðmyndum þāh,}}
| [and] waxed under welkin''' (firmament/clouds)''', [and amid] worthmint''' (honour/worship)''' theed''' (throve/prospered)'''
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''o'''ðþæt him '''ǣ'''ġhƿylc þāra '''y'''mbsittendra}}
| oth that''' (until that)''' him each of those umsitters''' (those "sitting" or dwelling roundabout)'''
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 10 || {{lang|ang|ofer '''h'''ronrāde '''h'''ȳran scolde,}}
| over whaleroad''' (''[[kenning]]'' for "sea")''' hear should,
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''g'''omban '''g'''yldan. Þæt ƿæs '''g'''ōd cyning!}}
| [and] yeme '''(heed/obedience; related to "gormless")''' yield. That was [a] good king!
|}

Here is a natural enough Modern English translation, although the phrasing of the Old English passage has often been stylistically preserved, even though it is not usual in Modern English:

{{blockquote|What! We Spear-Danes in ancient days inquired about the glory of the kings of the nation, how the princes performed bravery.

Often, Shield, the son of Sheaf, ripped away the meadbenches
from many tribes' enemy bands — he terrified men!

After destitution was first experienced (by him), he met with consolation for that; he grew under the clouds of the sky and flourished in adulation, until all of the neighbouring people had to obey him over the whaleroad, and pay tribute to the man. That was a good king!}}

=== The Lord's Prayer ===
{{original research section|date=December 2024}}
[[File:Faederureaudio2.ogg|thumb|left|A recording of how the Lord's Prayer probably sounded in Old English, pronounced slowly]]
{{Clear}}
This text of the [[Lord's Prayer]] is presented in the standardised Early West Saxon dialect.

{| cellspacing="10" style="white-space: wrap"
! Line || Original || [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] || Word-for-word translation into Modern English || Translation
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 1 ||{{lang|ang|Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum,}}
| {{IPA|[ˈfæ.der ˈuː.re θuː θe æɑ̯rt on ˈheo̯.vo.num]}}
|Father Ours, thou which art in heavens,
|Our Father, who art in heaven,
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 2 || {{lang|ang|Sīe þīn nama ġehālgod.}}
| {{IPA|[siːy̯ θiːn ˈnɒ.mɑ jeˈhɑːɫ.ɣod]}}
| Be thine name hallowed.
| Hallowed be thy name.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 3 || {{lang|ang|Tōbecume þīn rīċe,}}
| {{IPA|[ˌtoː.beˈku.me θiːn ˈriː.t͡ʃe]}}
|To be come [is] thine kingdom,
|Thy kingdom come,
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 4 || {{lang|ang|Ġeweorðe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum.}}
| {{IPA|[jeˈweo̯rˠ.ðe θiːn ˈwil.lɑ on ˈeo̯rˠ.ðan swɑː swɑː on ˈheo̯.vo.num]}}
| Let there be thine will, on earth so so in heavens.
| Thy will be done on earth as in heaven.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 5 || {{lang|ang|Ūrne dæġhwamlīcan hlāf sele ūs tōdæġ,}}
| {{IPA|[ˈuːrˠ.ne ˈdæj.ʍɑmˌliː.kɑn hl̥ɑːf ˈse.le uːs toːˈdæj]}}
| Our daily loaf sell us today,
| Give us this day our daily bread,
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 6 || {{lang|ang|And forġief ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġiefaþ ūrum gyltendum.}}
| {{IPA|[ɒnd forˠˈjiy̯f uːs ˈuː.re ˈɣyl.tɑs swɑː swɑː weː forˠˈjiy̯.vɑθ uː.rum ˈɣyl.ten.dum]}}
| And forgive us our guilts, so so we forgiveth our guilters.
| And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 7 || {{lang|ang|And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālīes ūs of yfele.}}
| {{IPA|[ɒnd ne jeˈlæːd θuː uːs on ˈkost.nuŋ.ɡe ɑk ɑːˈliːy̯s uːs of ˈy.ve.le]}}
| And not lead thou us in costening, but alease us of evil.
| And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 8 || {{lang|ang|Sōðlīċe.}}
| {{IPA|[ˈsoːðˌliː.t͡ʃe]}}
| Soothly.
| Amen.
|}

=== Charter of Cnut ===
This is a proclamation from [[Cnut]] to his earl [[Thorkell the Tall]] and the English people written in AD 1019. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the [[pilcrow]]s represent the original division.

{| cellspacing="10" style="white-space: wrap"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:50%" | Original
! scope="col" style="width:50%" | Representation with constructed cognates
|- style="vertical-align: top"
|    ¶ {{lang|ang|Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, tƿelfhynde and tƿyhynde, gehadode and læƿede, on Englalande freondlice.}}
|    ¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede''''(people's)''''-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his '''''people'''''ship, '''''greater''''' '''(having a 1200 [[shilling]] [[weregild]])''' and '''''lesser''''' '''(200 shilling weregild)''', hooded'''(ordained to priesthood)''' and lewd'''(lay)''', in England friendly.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| {{lang|ang|And ic cyðe eoƿ, þæt ic ƿylle beon hold hlaford and unsƿicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre ƿoroldlage.}}
| And I kithe'''(make known/couth to)''' you, that I will be [a] hold'''(civilised)''' lord and unswiking'''(uncheating)''' to God's rights'''(laws)''' and to [the] rights'''(laws)''' worldly.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
|    ¶ {{lang|ang|Ic nam me to gemynde þa geƿritu and þa ƿord, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghƿær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið ƿyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan ƿolde.}}
|    ¶ I nam'''(took)''' me to mind the writs and the word that the [[Archbishop Lyfing]] me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere'''(everywhere)''' God's love'''(praise)''' uprear'''(promote)''', and unright'''(outlaw)''' lies, and full frith'''(peace)''' work'''(bring about)''' by the might that me God would'''(wished)''' [to] sell''''(give)'''.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
|    ¶ {{lang|ang|Nu ne ƿandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hƿile þe eoƿ unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid-godes fultume þæt totƿæmde mid-minum scattum.}}
|    ¶ Now, ne went'''(withdrew/changed)''' I not my shot'''(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free)''' the while that you stood'''(endured)''' unfrith'''(turmoil)''' on-hand: now I, mid'''(with)''' God's '''''support''''', that [unfrith] totwemed'''(separated/dispelled)''' mid'''(with)''' my shot'''(financial contribution)'''.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| {{lang|ang|Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us ƿel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid-þam mannum þe me mid-foron into Denmearcon, þe eoƿ mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid-godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eoƿ næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hƿile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð.}}
| Tho'''(then)''' [a] man kithed'''(made known/couth to)''' me that us more harm '''''had''''' found'''(come upon)''' than us well liked'''(equalled)''': and tho'''(then)''' fore'''(travelled)''' I, meself, mid'''(with)''' those men that mid'''(with)''' me fore'''(travelled)''', into Denmark that [to] you most harm came of'''(from)''': and that[harm] have [I], mid'''(with)''' God's '''''support''''', afore'''(previously)''' forefangen'''(forestalled)''' that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith'''(breach of peace)''' ne come the while that ye me rightly hold'''(behold as king)''' and my life beeth.
|}

The following is a natural Modern English translation, with the overall structure of the Old English passage preserved. Even though "earl" is used to translate its Old English cognate "eorl", "eorl" in Old English does not correspond exactly to "earl" of the later medieval period:

{{blockquote|King Cnut kindly greets his archbishops and his provincial bishops and Earl Thorkell, and all his earls, and all his people, both those with a weregild of 1,200 shillings and those with a weregild of 200 shillings, both ordained and layman, in England.

And I declare to you, that I will be a kind lord, and faithful to God's laws and to proper secular law.

I recalled the writings and words which the archbishop Lyfing brought to me from the Pope of Rome, that I must promote the worship of God everywhere, and suppress unrighteousness, and promote perfect peace with the power which God would give me.

I never hesitated from my peace payments (e.g. to the Vikings) while you had strife at hand. But with God's help and my payments, that went away.

At that time, I was told that we had been harmed more than we liked; and I departed with the men who accompanied me into Denmark, from where the most harm has come to you; and I have already prevented it with God's help, so that from now on, strife will never come to you from there, while you regard me rightly and my life persists.}}