Editing Pericles (section)

== Peloponnesian War ==
{{Main|Peloponnesian War}}
The causes of the Peloponnesian War have been much debated, but many ancient historians lay the blame on Pericles and Athens. Plutarch seems to believe that Pericles and the Athenians incited the war, scrambling to implement their belligerent tactics "with a sort of arrogance and a love of strife".{{efn-lg|Plutarch describes these allegations without espousing them.<ref name="P31" /> Thucydides insists, however, that the Athenian politician was still powerful.<ref name="ThI139">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 1#1:139|1.139]]</ref> Gomme and Vlachos support Thucydides' view.<ref name="Go1">A. W. Gomme, ''An Historical Commentary on Thucydides'', I, 452</ref><ref name="Vl141">A. Vlachos, ''Comments on Thucydides'', 141</ref>}} Thucydides hints at the same thing, believing the reason for the war was Sparta's fear of Athenian power and growth. However, as he is generally regarded as an admirer of Pericles, Thucydides has been criticized for bias against [[Sparta]].{{efn-lg|Vlachos maintains that Thucydides' narration gives the impression that Athens' alliance had become an authoritarian and oppressive empire, while the historian makes no comment for Sparta's equally harsh rule. Vlachos underlines, however, that the defeat of Athens could entail a much more ruthless Spartan empire, something that did indeed happen. Hence, the historian's hinted assertion that Greek public opinion espoused Sparta's pledges of liberating Greece almost uncomplainingly seems tendentious.<ref name="Vl60">A. Vlachos, ''Thucydides' bias'', 60 etc</ref> [[G.E.M. de Ste. Croix|Geoffrey Ernest Maurice de Ste Croix]], for his part, argues that Athens' imperium was welcomed and valuable for the stability of democracy all over Greece.<ref name="Ste Croix">Ste Croix, ''The Character of the Athenian Empire'', 1–41.</ref> According to Fornara and Samons, "any view proposing that popularity or its opposite can be inferred simply from narrow ideological considerations is superficial".<ref name="For77">Fornara-Samons, ''Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles'', [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=ft2p30058m&chunk.id=d0e5453/ 77]</ref>}}

=== Prelude to the war ===
[[Image:Anaxagoras and Pericles.jpg|thumb|270px|''[[Anaxagoras]] and Pericles'' by Augustin-Louis Belle (1757–1841)]]

Pericles was convinced that the war against Sparta, which could not conceal its envy of Athens' pre-eminence, was inevitable if unfortunate.<ref name="Podlecki158">A.J. Podlecki, ''Perikles and his Circle'', 158</ref> Therefore, he did not hesitate to send troops to [[Corcyra]] to reinforce the Corcyraean fleet, which was fighting against [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]].<ref name="Th31-54">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 1#1:31|1.31–54]]</ref> In 433 BC the enemy fleets confronted each other at the [[Battle of Sybota]] and a year later the Athenians fought Corinthian colonists at the [[Battle of Potidaea]]; these two events contributed greatly to Corinth's lasting hatred of Athens. During the same period, Pericles proposed the [[Megarian decree]], which resembled a modern trade embargo. According to the provisions of the decree, Megarian merchants were excluded from the market of Athens and the ports in its empire. This ban strangled the Megarian economy and strained the fragile peace between Athens and Sparta, which was allied with Megara. According to [[George Cawkwell]], a [[praelector]] in [[ancient history]], with this decree Pericles breached the [[Thirty Years' Peace]] "but, perhaps, not without the semblance of an excuse".<ref name="Cawkwell">G. Cawkwell, ''Thucydides and the Peloponnesian War'', 33</ref> The Athenians' justification was that the Megarians had cultivated the sacred land consecrated to [[Demeter]] and had given refuge to runaway slaves, a behavior which the Athenians considered to be impious.<ref name="Buckley322">T. Buckley, ''Aspects of Greek History 750–323 BC'', 322.</ref>

After consultations with its allies, Sparta sent a deputation to Athens demanding certain concessions, such as the immediate expulsion of the Alcmaeonidae family including Pericles and the retraction of the Megarian Decree, threatening war if the demands were not met. The obvious purpose of these proposals was the instigation of a confrontation between Pericles and the people; this event, indeed, would come about a few years later.<ref name="Th127">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 1#1:127|1.127]]</ref> At that time, the Athenians unhesitatingly followed Pericles' instructions. In the first legendary oration Thucydides puts in his mouth, Pericles advised the Athenians not to yield to their opponents' demands, since they were militarily stronger.<ref name="Th140-144">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 1#1:140|1.140–144]]</ref> Pericles was not prepared to make unilateral concessions, believing that "if Athens conceded on that issue, then Sparta was sure to come up with further demands".<ref name="Platias100-103">A.G. Platias-C. Koliopoulos, ''Thucydides on Strategy'', 100–103.</ref> Consequently, Pericles asked the Spartans to offer a ''quid pro quo''. In exchange for retracting the Megarian Decree, the Athenians demanded from Sparta to abandon their practice of periodic expulsion of foreigners from their territory ([[xenelasia]]) and to recognize the autonomy of its allied cities, a request implying that Sparta's hegemony was also ruthless.<ref name="Vlachos20">A. Vlachos, ''Thucydides' Bias'', 20</ref> The terms were rejected by the Spartans, and with neither side willing to back down, the two cities prepared for war. According to Athanasios G. Platias and Constantinos Koliopoulos, professors of strategic studies and [[international politics]], "rather than to submit to coercive demands, Pericles chose war".<ref name="Platias100-103" /> Another consideration that may well have influenced Pericles' stance was the concern that revolts in the empire might spread if Athens showed itself weak.<ref name="Ehr264">V.L. Ehrenberg, ''From Solon to Socrates'', 264.</ref>

=== First year of the war (431 BC) ===
[[Image:Parthenon from south.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Parthenon]] was prompted by Pericles.]]
In 431 BC, while peace already was precarious, [[Archidamus&nbsp;II]], Sparta's king, sent a new delegation to Athens, demanding that the Athenians submit to Sparta's demands. This deputation was not allowed to enter Athens, as Pericles had already passed a resolution according to which no Spartan deputation would be welcomed if the Spartans had previously initiated any hostile military actions. The Spartan army was at this time gathered at Corinth, and, citing this as a hostile action, the Athenians refused to admit their emissaries.<ref name="ThII12">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2#2:12|2.12]]</ref> With his last attempt at negotiation thus declined, Archidamus invaded [[Attica]], but found no Athenians there; Pericles, aware that Sparta's strategy would be to invade and ravage Athenian territory, had previously arranged to evacuate the entire population of the region to within the walls of Athens.<ref name="ThII14">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2#2:14|2.14]]</ref>

No definite record exists of how exactly Pericles managed to convince the residents of Attica to agree to move into the crowded urban areas. For most, the move meant abandoning their land and ancestral shrines and completely changing their lifestyle.<ref name="OberCh6">J. Ober, ''The Athenian Revolution'', 72–85</ref> Therefore, although they agreed to leave, many rural residents were far from happy with Pericles' decision.<ref name="ThII16">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2#2:16|2.16]]</ref> Pericles also gave his compatriots some advice on their present affairs and reassured them that, if the enemy did not plunder his farms, he would offer his property to the city. This promise was prompted by his concern that Archidamus, who was a friend of his, might pass by his estate without ravaging it, either as a gesture of friendship or as a calculated political move aimed to alienate Pericles from his constituents.<ref name="ThII13">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2#2:13|2.13]]</ref>

[[File:Discurso funebre pericles.PNG|thumb|300px|left|''Pericles' Funeral Oration'' (''Perikles hält die Leichenrede'') by [[Philipp Foltz]] (1852)]]

In any case, seeing the pillage of their farms, the Athenians were outraged, and they soon began to indirectly express their discontent towards their leader, who many of them considered to have drawn them into the war. Even when in the face of mounting pressure, Pericles did not give in to the demands for immediate action against the enemy or revise his initial strategy. He also avoided convening the ecclesia, fearing that the populace, outraged by the unopposed ravaging of their farms, might rashly decide to challenge the vaunted Spartan army in the field.<ref name="ThII22">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2#2:22|2.22]]</ref> As meetings of the assembly were called at the discretion of its rotating presidents, the "prytani" (singular, "prytaneis"), Pericles had no formal control over their scheduling; rather, the respect in which Pericles was held by the prytanies was apparently sufficient to persuade them to do as he wished.<ref name="KaganPe69">D. Kagan, ''The Peloponnesian War'', 69</ref> While the Spartan army remained in Attica, Pericles sent a fleet of 100 ships to loot the coasts of the [[Peloponnese]] and charged the cavalry to guard the ravaged farms close to the walls of the city.<ref name="ThX18">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2#2:18|2.18]] and Xenophon(?),''Constitution of Athens'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0158;layout=;query=chapter%3D%232;loc=1.1 2]</ref> When the enemy retired and the pillaging came to an end, Pericles proposed a decree according to which the authorities of the city should put aside 1,000 talents and 100 ships, in case Athens was attacked by naval forces. According to the most stringent provision of the decree, even proposing a different use of the money or ships would entail the penalty of death. During the autumn of 431 BC, Pericles led the Athenian forces that invaded Megara and a few months later (winter of 431–430 BC) he delivered his monumental and emotional [[Pericles' Funeral Oration|Funeral Oration]], honoring the Athenians who died for their city.<ref name="ThII35-46">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2#2:35|2.35–46]]</ref>

=== Last military operations and death ===
{{rquote|right|For heroes have the whole earth for their tomb; and in lands far from their own, where the column with its epitaph declares it, there is enshrined in every breast a record unwritten with no tablet to preserve it, except that of the heart.|[[Thucydides]], ''[[Pericles' Funeral Oration]]''<ref>[[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2#2:43|2.43]]</ref>{{efn-lg|name="Thucydides speeches"}}}}

In 430 BC, the army of Sparta looted Attica for a second time, but Pericles was not daunted and refused to revise his initial strategy.<ref name="Thuc55">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2#2:55|2.55]]</ref> Unwilling to engage the Spartan army in battle, he again led a naval expedition to plunder the coasts of the Peloponnese, this time taking 100 Athenian ships with him.<ref name="Thuc56">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2#2:56|2.56]]</ref> According to Plutarch, just before the sailing of the ships an [[eclipse]] of the [[sun]] frightened the crews, but Pericles used the astronomical knowledge he had acquired from Anaxagoras to calm them.<ref name="Pl34">Plutarch, ''Pericles'', [[s:Lives/Pericles#35|XXXV]]</ref> In the summer of the same year [[Plague of Athens|an epidemic broke out]] and devastated the Athenians.<ref name="Th48-56">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2#2:48|2.48]] and [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2#2:56|2.56]]</ref> The exact identity of the disease is uncertain; typhus or typhoid fever are suspected, but this has been the source of much debate.{{efn-lg|Taking into consideration its symptoms, most researchers and scientists now believe that it was [[typhus]] or [[typhoid fever]] and not [[cholera]], [[Bubonic plague|plague]] or [[measles]].<ref name="Go2">A.W. Gomme, ''An Historical Commentary on Thucydides'', II, 145–162.</ref><ref name="Vl177">A. Vlachos, ''Remarks on Thucydides'', 177</ref>}} In any case, the city's plight, caused by the epidemic, triggered a new wave of public uproar, and Pericles was forced to defend himself in an emotional final speech, a rendition of which is presented by Thucydides.<ref name="Thuc6064">Thucydides, [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2#2:60|2.60–64]]</ref> This is considered to be a monumental oration, revealing Pericles' virtues but also his bitterness towards his compatriots' ingratitude.<ref name="Helios" /> Temporarily, he managed to tame the people's resentment and to ride out the storm, but his internal enemies' final bid to undermine him came off; they managed to deprive him of the generalship and to fine him at an amount estimated between 15 and 50 talents.<ref name="Pl34"/> Ancient sources mention [[Cleon]], a rising and dynamic protagonist of the Athenian political scene during the war, as the public prosecutor in Pericles' trial.<ref name="Pl34"/>
[[File:Plague in an Ancient City LACMA AC1997.10.1 (1 of 2).jpg|thumb|270px|''The Plague of Athens'' (c. 1652–1654) by [[Michiel Sweerts]]]]

Nevertheless, within just a year, in 429 BC, the Athenians not only forgave Pericles but also re-elected him as strategos.{{efn-lg|Pericles held the generalship from 444 BC until 430&nbsp;BC without interruption.<ref name="For2" />}} He was reinstated in command of the Athenian army and led all its military operations during 429 BC, having once again under his control the levers of power.<ref name="Helios" /> In that year, however, Pericles witnessed in the epidemic the death of both [[Paralus and Xanthippus]], his legitimate sons from his first wife. According to Plutarch, Pericles was overwhelmed with grief and wept copiously for his loss.<ref name="Pl36">Plutarch, ''Pericles'', XXXVI</ref> He himself died of the plague later in the year.

Just before his death, Pericles' friends were concentrated around his bed, enumerating his virtues during peace and underscoring his nine war trophies. Pericles, though moribund, heard them and interrupted them, pointing out that they forgot to mention his fairest and greatest title to their admiration; "for", said he, "no living Athenian ever put on mourning because of me".<ref name="Pl38">Plutarch, ''Pericles'', [[s:Lives/Pericles#38|XXXVIII]]</ref> Pericles lived during the first two and a half years of the Peloponnesian War and, according to Thucydides, his death was a disaster for Athens, since his successors were inferior to him; they preferred to incite all the bad habits of the rabble and followed an unstable policy, endeavoring to be popular rather than useful.<ref name="Thuc65"/> With these bitter comments, Thucydides not only laments the loss of a man he admired, but he also heralds the flickering of Athens' unique glory and grandeur.

Pausanias (c. 150 AD) records (I.29) seeing the tomb of Pericles along a road near the Academy.