Editing Proto-Semitic language (section)

==Grammar==

=== Nouns ===
Three cases are reconstructed: nominative (marked by ''*-u''), genitive (marked by ''*-i''), accusative (marked by ''*-a'').<ref>{{cite book|author=Weninger S.|title=The Semitic languages|chapter=Reconstructive Morphology|place=Berlin — Boston|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2011|pages=165|isbn=978-3-11-018613-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Huehnergard J.|title=The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia|chapter=Afro-Asiatic|place=New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|pages=235|isbn=978-0-511-39338-9}}</ref>

There were two genders: masculine (marked by a zero morpheme) and feminine (marked by ''*-at''/''*-t'' and ''*-ah''/''-ā'').<ref>{{cite book|author=Moscati S., Spitaler A., Ullendorff E., von Soden W.|title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages| place=Wiesbaden|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|year=1980|pages=84–85|isbn=}}</ref><ref name="Weninger166">{{cite book|author=Weninger S.|title=The Semitic languages|chapter=Reconstructive Morphology|place=Berlin — Boston|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2011|pages=166|isbn=978-3-11-018613-0}}</ref> The feminine marker was placed after the root, but before the ending, e.g.: ''*ba‘l-'' ‘lord, master’ > ''*ba‘lat-'' ‘lady, mistress’, ''*bin-'' ‘son’ > ''*bint-'' ‘daughter’.<ref name="Huehnergard2067">{{cite book|author=Huehnergard J.|title=Proto-Semitic Language and Culture|url=https://www.academia.edu/1421136|volume=The American Heritage dictionary of the English Language|year=2011|pages=2067}}</ref> There was also a small group of feminine nouns that had no formal markers: ''*’imm-'' ‘mother’, {{transliteration|mis|*laxir-}} ‘ewe’, ''*’atān-'' ‘she-donkey’, ''*‘ayn-'' ‘eye’, ''*birk-'' ‘knee’<ref>{{cite book|author=Huehnergard J.|title=The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia|chapter=Afro-Asiatic|place=New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|pages=234|isbn=978-0-511-39338-9}}</ref>

There were three numbers: singular, plural and [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]].<ref name="Weninger166"/>

There were two ways to mark the plural:<ref>{{cite book|author=Moscati S., Spitaler A., Ullendorff E., von Soden W.|title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages| place=Wiesbaden|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|year=1980|pages=87–92|isbn=}}</ref>
* affixation
** masculine nouns formed their nominative by means of the marker ''*-ū'', their genitive and accusative by ''*-ī'', i.e., by lengthening the vowel of the singular case suffix;
** feminines also formed their plural by lengthening a vowel — namely, by means of the marker ''*-āt'';
* apophonically (by changing the vocalisation pattern of the word, as seen e.g. in Arabic: ''kātib'' ‘writer’ — ''kuttāb'' ‘writers’) — only in the masculine.

The dual was formed by means of the markers ''*-ā'' in the nominative and ''*-āy'' in the genitive and accusative.<ref>{{cite book|author=Moscati S., Spitaler A., Ullendorff E., von Soden W.|title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages| place=Wiesbaden|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|year=1980|pages=93|isbn=}}</ref>

The endings of the noun:<ref>{{cite book|author=Moscati S., Spitaler A., Ullendorff E., von Soden W.|title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages| place=Wiesbaden|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|year=1980|pages=94|isbn=}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
 !
 !Singular
 !Plural
 !Dual
 |-
 !Nominative
 | *-u
 | *-ū
 | *-ā
 |-
 !Genitive
 | *-i
 | *-ī
 | *-āy
 |-
 !Accusative
 | *-a
 | *-ī
 | *-āy
 |}

===Pronouns===
Like most of its daughter languages, Proto-Semitic has one free pronoun set, and case-marked bound sets of enclitic pronouns. Genitive case and accusative case are only distinguished in the first person.{{sfnp|Huehnergard|2008|p=237|ps=; Huehnergard's phonetic transcription is changed to traditional symbols here.}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Proto-Semitic pronouns
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | independent<br/>nominative
! colspan=3 | enclitic
|-
! nominative
! genitive
! accusative
|-
! 1.sg.
| {{hamza}}anā̆/{{hamza}}anākū̆
| -kū̆
| -ī/-ya
| -nī
|-
! 2.sg.masc.
| {{hamza}}antā̆
| -tā̆
| style=text-align:center colspan=2| -kā̆
|-
! 2.sg.fem.
| {{hamza}}antī̆
| -tī̆
| style=text-align:center colspan=2| -kī̆
|-
! 3.sg.masc.
| šu{{hamza}}a
| -a
| style=text-align:center colspan=2| -šū̆
|-
! 3.sg.fem.
| ši{{hamza}}a
| -at
| style=text-align:center colspan=2| -šā̆/-šī̆
|-
! colspan=5|
|-
! 1.du.
| ?
| -nuyā ?
| -niyā ?
| -nayā ?
|-
! 2.du.
| {{hamza}}antumā
| -tumā
| style=text-align:center colspan=2| -kumā/-kumay
|-
! 3.du.
| šumā
| -ā
| style=text-align:center colspan=2| -šumā/-šumay
|-
! colspan=5|
|-
! 1.pl.
| niḥnū̆
| -nū̆
| -nī̆
| -nā̆
|-
! 2.pl.masc.
| {{hamza}}antum
| -tum
| style=text-align:center colspan=2| -kum
|-
! 2.pl.fem.
| {{hamza}}antin
| -tin
| style=text-align:center colspan=2| -kin
|-
! 3.pl.masc.
| šum/šumū
| -ū
| style=text-align:center colspan=2| -šum
|-
! 3.pl.fem.
| šin/šinnā
| -ā
| style=text-align:center colspan=2| -šin
|}
For many pronouns, the final vowel is reconstructed with long and short positional variants; this is conventionally indicated by a combined macron and breve on the vowel (e.g. ''ā̆'').

The Semitic [[demonstrative pronoun]]s are usually divided into two series: those showing a relatively close object and those showing a more distant one.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=315|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref> Nonetheless, it is very difficult to reconstruct Proto-Semitic forms on the basis of the demonstratives of the individual Semitic languages.<ref>{{cite book|author=Moscati S., Spitaler A., Ullendorff E., von Soden W.|title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages| place=Wiesbaden|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|year=1980|pages=112|isbn=}}</ref>

A series of interrogative pronouns are reconstructed for Proto-Semitic: ''*man'' ‘who’, ''*mā'' ‘what’ and ''*’ayyu'' ‘of what kind’ (derived from ''*’ay'' ‘where’).<ref>{{cite book|author=Moscati S., Spitaler A., Ullendorff E., von Soden W.|title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages| place=Wiesbaden|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|year=1980|pages=114–115|isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=328–329|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Huehnergard J.|title=The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia|chapter=Afro-Asiatic|place=New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|pages=238|isbn=978-0-511-39338-9}}</ref>

=== Numerals ===
Reconstruction of the cardinal numerals from one to ten (masculine):<ref>{{cite book|author=Weninger S.|title=The Semitic languages|chapter=Reconstructive Morphology|place=Berlin — Boston|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2011|pages=167|isbn=978-3-11-018613-0}}</ref><ref name="Lipiński282">{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=282|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref><ref name="Huehnergard241">{{cite book|author=Huehnergard J.|title=The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia|chapter=Afro-Asiatic|place=New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|pages=241|isbn=978-0-511-39338-9}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!rowspan="2"|
!colspan="4"|Languages
!colspan="3"|Reconstruction
|-
! Akkadian
! Ugaritic
! Arabic
! Sabean
! Weninger
! Lipiński
! Huehnergard
|-
! One
| ištēnum
| ʔaḥd
| wāḥid
| ’ḥd
| *’aḥad-
| *ḥad-, *‘išt-
| *ʔaħad-
|-
! Two
| šena/šina
| ṯn
| iṯnān
| ṯny
| *ṯinān
| *ṯin-, *kil’-
| *θin̩-/*θn̩-
|-
! Three
| šalāšum
| ṯlṯ
| ṯalāṯ
| s<sub>2</sub>lṯ
| *śalāṯ-
| *ślaṯ-
| *θalaːθ-
|-
! Four
| erbûm
| ʔarbʻ
| ’arbaʻ
| ’rbʻ
| *’arbaʻ-
| *rbaʻ-
| *ʔarbaʕ-
|-
! Five
| ḫamšum
| ḫmš
| ḫams
| ḫms<sub>1</sub>
| *ḫamš-
| *ḫamš-
| *xamis-
|-
! Six
| ši/eššum
| ṯṯ
| sitt
| s<sub>1</sub>dṯ/s<sub>1</sub>ṯ-
| *šidṯ-
| *šidṯ-
| *sidθ-
|-
! Seven
| sebûm
| šbʻ
| sabʻ
| s<sub>1</sub>bʻ
| *šabʻ-
| *šabʻ-
| *sabʕ-
|-
! Eight
| samānûm
| ṯmn
| ṯamānī
| ṯmny/ṯmn
| *ṯamāniy-
| *ṯmān-
| *θamaːniy-
|-
! Nine
| tišûm
| tšʻ
| tisʻ
| ts<sub>1</sub>ʻ
| *tišʻ-
| *tišʻ-
| *tisʕ-
|-
! Ten
| ešrum
| ʻšr
| ʻašr
| ʻs<sub>2</sub>r
| *ʻaśr-
| *ʻaśr-
| *ʕaɬr-
|-
|}

All nouns from one to ten were declined as singular nouns with the exception of the numeral ‘two’, which was declined as a dual. Feminine forms of all numbers from one to ten were produced by the suffix ''*-at''. In addition, if the name of the object counted was of the feminine gender, the numbers from 3 to 10 were in the masculine form and vice versa.<ref name="Huehnergard240">{{cite book|author=Huehnergard J.|title=The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia|chapter=Afro-Asiatic|place=New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|pages=240|isbn=978-0-511-39338-9}}</ref>

The names of the numerals from 11 to 19 were formed by combining the names of the unit digits with the word ‘ten’. 'Twenty’ was expressed by the dual form of ‘ten’, and the names of the ten digits from 30 to 90 were plural forms of the corresponding unit digits. Proto-Semitic also had designations for hundred (''*mi’t-''), thousand (''*li’m-'') and ten thousand (''*ribb-'').<ref>{{cite book|author=Moscati S., Spitaler A., Ullendorff E., von Soden W.|title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages| place=Wiesbaden|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|year=1980|pages=117–118}}</ref><ref name="Lipiński282"/>

Ordinal numerals cannot be reconstructed for the protolanguage because of the great diversity in the descendant languages.<ref name="Huehnergard241"/>

=== Verbs ===
Traditionally, two conjugations are reconstructed for Proto-Semitic — a prefix conjugation and a suffix conjugation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Moscati S., Spitaler A., Ullendorff E., von Soden W.|title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages| place=Wiesbaden|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|year=1980|pages=131–132|isbn=}}</ref> According to a hypothesis that has garnered wide support, the prefix conjugation was used with verbs that expressed actions, and the suffix conjugation was used with verbs that expressed states.<ref>{{cite book|author=Коган Л. Е.|chapter=Семитские языки|title=Языки мира: Семитские языки. Аккадский язык. Северозападносемитские языки|place=М.|publisher=Academia|year=2009|pages=75|isbn=978-5-87444-284-2}}</ref>

The prefix conjugation is reconstructed as follows:<ref>{{cite book|author=Weninger S.|title=The Semitic languages|chapter=Reconstructive Morphology|place=Berlin — Boston|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2011|pages=160|isbn=978-3-11-018613-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=370|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
 !
 !
 !Singular
 !Plural
 !Dual
 |-
 !1 pers.
 |
 |*’a-
 |*ni-
 |
 |-
 ! rowspan=3| 2 pers.
 |-
 ! masc.
 |*ta- 
 |*ta- – -ū
 |*ta- – -ā
 |-
 ! fem.
 |*ta- – -ī
 |*ta- – -ā
 |*ta- – -ā
 |-
 ! rowspan=3| 3 pers.
 |-
 ! masc.
 |*ya-
 |*yi- – -ū
 |*ya- – -ā
 |-
 ! fem.
 |*ta-
 |*yi- – -ā
 |*ta- – -ā
 |}

The suffix conjugation is reconstructed as follows:<ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=360|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
 !
 !
 !Singular
 !Plural
 !Dual
 |-
 !1 pers. 
 |
 |*-ku
 |*-na
 |*-kāya/-nāya
 |-
 ! rowspan=3| 2 pers.
 |-
 ! masc.
 |*-ka/-ta 
 |*-kan(u)/-tanu
 |*-kā/-tanā  
 |-
 ! fem.
 |*-ki/-ti
 |*-kin(a)/-tina
 |*-kā/-tanā  
 |-
 ! rowspan=3| 3 pers.
 |-
 ! masc.
 | –
 |*-ū
 |*-ā
 |-
 ! fem.
 |*-at
 |*-ā
 |*-atā
 |}

Verb stems are divided into base forms (a "G-stem",<ref>{{Cite web |title=Semitic languages - Verbal Morphology {{!}} The stem {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Semitic-languages/Verbal-morphology |access-date=2024-02-22 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref> from {{langx|de|Grundstamm}}) and derived. The bases consist of a three-consonant root with thematic vowels. Among the derived ones, one distinguishes stems with a geminated middle consonant ({{langx|de|Doppelungsstamm}}), stems with a lengthened first vowel, causative stems (formed by means of the prefix ''*ša-''), nouns with the prefix ''*na-''/''*ni-'', stems with the suffix ''*-tV-'', stems that consist of a reduplicated biconsonantal root and stems with a geminated final consonant.<ref>{{cite book|author=Moscati S., Spitaler A., Ullendorff E., von Soden W.|title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages| place=Wiesbaden|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|year=1980|pages=122–130|isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=378–406|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Weninger S.|title=The Semitic languages|chapter=Reconstructive Morphology|place=Berlin — Boston|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2011|pages=156–157|isbn=978-3-11-018613-0}}</ref>

From the basic stems, an active participle was formed on the pattern CāCiC, the passive one on the patterns CaCīC and CaCūC.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=419|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref>

From the derived stems, the participles were formed by means of the prefix ''*mu-'', while the vocalisation of the active ones was ''a-i'' and that of the passive ones was ''a-a''<ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=420–421|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref> (on this pattern, for example, the Arabic name ''muḥammad'' is formed from the root ''ḥmd'' ‘to praise’.<ref>{{citation|author=Huehnergard J.|title=Proto-Semitic Language and Culture|url=https://www.academia.edu/1421136|volume=The American Heritage dictionary of the English Language|year=2011|pages=2066}}</ref>)

The [[imperative mood]] was formed only for the second person, and the form for the singular masculine was the pure stem:<ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=366–367|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
 !
 !
 !Singular
 !Plural
 !Dual
 |-
 ! rowspan=3| 2 pers.
 |-
 ! masc.
 | -
 | *-ū
 | *-ā 
 |-
 ! fem.
 | *-i
 | *-ā
 | *-ā
 |}

=== Conjunctions ===
Three conjunctions are reconstructed for Proto-Semitic:<ref>{{cite book|author=Weninger S.|title=The Semitic languages|chapter=Reconstructive Morphology|place=Berlin — Boston|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2011|pages=169|isbn=978-3-11-018613-0}}</ref>
* ''*wa'' ’and’;
* ''*’aw'' ’or’;
* ''*šimmā'' ’if’.

=== Syntax ===
The Proto-Semitic language was a language of [[nominative-accusative alignment]], which is preserved in most of its descendant languages.<ref>{{cite book|author=Коган Л. Е.|chapter=Семитские языки|title=Языки мира: Семитские языки. Аккадский язык. Северозападносемитские языки|place=М.|publisher=Academia|year=2009|pages=99|isbn=978-5-87444-284-2}}</ref>

The basic word order of Proto-Semitic was [[Verb–subject–object|VSO]] ([[verb]] — [[subject (grammar)|subject]] — [[object (linguistics)|direct object]]), and the modifier usually followed its head.<ref>{{Cite journal |editor=  |format= |url= https://www.academia.edu/234660 |title= Proto-Semitic and Proto-Akkadian |type=  |orig-year= | agency =  |edition=   |location=  |year= 2006 |publisher=  |volume= The Akkadian language in its Semitic Context |issue=  |number= |pages = 1 |series=  |isbn =  |issn =  |doi =  |bibcode =  |arxiv =  |pmid =  |archive-url =  |archive-date =  |language=  |quote=  |last1= Huehnergard|first1= John}}</ref><ref name="Huehnergard241"/>

=== Lexis ===
[[File:Semitic 1st AD.svg|thumb|250px|right|The Semitic languages in the 1st century AD]]
Reconstruction of the Proto-Semitic lexicon provides more information about the lives of Proto-Semites and helps in the search for their [[Urheimat]].

Reconstructed terms include: 

* [[religion|Religious]] terms: {{lang|sem-x-proto|*ʔil}} ‘[[deity]]’, {{lang|sem-x-proto|*ḏbḥ}} ‘to perform a [[sacrifice]]’, {{lang|sem-x-proto|*mšḥ}} ‘[[anointment|to anoint]]’, {{lang|sem-x-proto|*ḳdš}} ‘be holy’, {{lang|sem-x-proto|*ḥrm}} ‘to forbid, excommunicate’, ''*ṣalm-'' ‘[[Cult image|idol]]’;
* [[agriculture|Agricultural]] terms: ''*ḥaḳl-'' ‘field’, ''*ḥrṯ'' ‘to plough’, ''*zrʕ'' ‘to sow’, ''*ʻṣ́d'' ‘to harvest’, ''*dyš'' ‘to thresh’, ''*ḏrw'' ‘to winnow’, ''*gurn-'' ‘[[threshing-floor]]’, ''*ḥinṭ-'' ‘[[wheat]]’, ''*kunāṯ-'' ‘[[emmer]]’;
* [[Animal husbandry]] terms: ''*raḫil-'' ‘ewe’, ''*‘inz-'' ‘[[domestic goat|goat]]’, ''*śaw-'' ‘a flock of sheep’, ''*ṣ́a’n-'' ‘a herd of sheep and goats’, {{transliteration|mis|*gzz}} ‘to shear sheep’, ''*r‘y'' ‘to graze (animals)’, ''*šḳy'' ‘to guide to a watering place’, ''*ʔalp-'' ‘bull’, ''*ṯawr-'' ‘buffalo’, ''*kalb-'' ‘[[dog]]’, ''*ḥimār-'' ‘[[Domestic donkey|donkey]]’, ''*’atān-'' ‘she-donkey’, ''*ḥalab-'' ‘[[milk]]’, ''*lašad-'' ‘cream’, ''*ḫim’at-'' ‘[[butter]]’;
* Terms of daily life: ''*bayt-'' ‘house’, ''*dalt-'' ‘[[door]]’, ''*ʕarś-'' ‘[[bed]]’, ''*kry'' ‘to dig’, ''*biʔr-'' ‘[[well]]’, ''*śrp'' ‘to kindle, ''*ʔiš-'' ‘[[fire]]’, ''*ḳly'' ‘to roast’, ''*laḥm-'' ‘food’;
* Technological terms: ''*ṣrp'' ‘to smelt’, ''*paḥḥam-'' ‘[[coal]]’, ''*kasp-'' ‘[[silver]]’, ''*ḥabl-'' ‘rope’, ''*ḳašt-'' ‘[[Bow (weapon)|bow]]’, ''*ḥaṱw-'' ‘[[arrow]]’;
* Plants and foods: ''*tiʔn-'' ‘[[Common fig|fig]]’, ''*ṯūm-'' ‘[[garlic]]’, ''*baṣal-'' ‘[[onion]]’, ''*dibš-'' ‘date honey’.<ref name="Huehnergard2068">{{citation|author=Huehnergard J.|title=Proto-Semitic Language and Culture|url=https://www.academia.edu/1421136|volume=The American Heritage dictionary of the English Language|year=2011|pages=2068}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kogan L.|title=The Semitic languages|chapter=Proto-Semitic Lexicon|url=|place=Berlin — Boston|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2011|pages=179–242|isbn=978-3-11-018613-0}}</ref>

The words {{lang|sem-x-proto|*ṯawr-}} ‘buffalo’ and {{lang|sem-x-proto|*ḳarn-}} ‘horn’ are suspected to be borrowings from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]<ref name="Huehnergard2068"/> or vice versa (for {{lang|sem-x-proto|*ṯawr-}} and certain other words).<ref>{{Cite journal |author =  |editor=  |format= |url=  |title= Древнейшие индоевропейско-семитские языковые контакты |type=  |orig-year= | agency =  |edition= Проблемы индоевропейского языкознания  |location=  |year= 1964 |publisher=  |volume=  |issue=  |number= |pages = 3–12 |series=  |isbn =  |issn =  |doi =  |bibcode =  |arxiv =  |pmid =  |language=  |quote=  }}</ref> [[Sergei Starostin]] adduces several dozens of Semito-Indo-European correspondences, which he considers to be borrowings into Proto-Semitic from [[Proto-Anatolian language|Proto-Anatolian]] or a disappeared branch of Proto-Indo-European.<ref>{{Cite book |editor=  |format= |url=  |title= Indo-European Glottochronology and Homeland |type=  |orig-year= | agency =  |edition= Труды по языкознанию  |location=  |year= 2007 |publisher=  Языки славянских культур|volume=  |number= |pages = 821–826 |series=  |isbn = 978-5-9551-0186-6 |issn =  |doi =  |bibcode =  |arxiv =  |pmid =  |language=  |quote=  |last1= а Старостин|first1= С.}}</ref>