Editing Quotation (section)

===Form===

In most languages, quotations in spoken discourse are introduced by a [[verbum dicendi|verb of saying]] and a [[pronoun]]. For example, a quotation in English can be introduced by "She said". In some languages, there is a [[discourse marker]] in addition to the verb of saying that functions as verbal quotation marks.<ref name="tracy">{{cite book |editor1-last=Tracy |editor1-first=Karen |title=The international encyclopedia of language and social interaction |date=2015 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |isbn=9781118611463 |pages=1272–1276}}</ref> For example, Japanese uses the quotative particle (a type of quotative marker) ''to'' along with the [[grammatical conjugation|conjugated]] verb of saying ''itta'':

{{fs interlinear |lang=ja |indent=2 |abbreviations=COM:complementizer
|c1= <ref name="tracy"/>
| ゆき は あなた には 彼女 が 好き '''と''' '''言った'''。
| Yuki wa anata {ni wa} kanojo ga suki '''to''' '''itta'''.
| Yuki TOP you {DAT (TOP)} her NOM like COM said
| "Yuki said that you liked her."
}}

Verbs of saying (known as quotative verbs when used to introduce quotations) and quotative particles are used as quotative markers, which signal quotations in utterances.<ref name="tracy"/> Quotative evidentials are also used in some languages to indicate quoted speech (e.g. [[Cusco Quechua]] spoken in Peru, [[Nanti language|Nanti]] spoken in lowland southeastern Peru, [[Laal language|Laal]] spoken in Chad).<ref name="quechua">{{cite journal |last1=Korotkova |first1=Natasha |title=Evidentials and (relayed) speech acts: hearsay as quotation |journal=Proceedings of SALT 25 |date=2017 |volume=25 |pages=676–694 |doi=10.3765/salt.v25i0.3969|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="nanti">{{cite book |editor1-last=LaPolla |editor1-first=Randy |editor2-last=De Busser |editor2-first=Rik |title=Language Structure and Environment |date=2015 |publisher=John Benjamins |pages=99–103}}</ref><ref name="laal">{{cite web |last1=Lionnet |first1=Florian |title=More than reported speech: Quotative evidentiality in Laal |url=http://www.princeton.edu/~flionnet/papers/Lionnet-WOCAL-Laal-evidential.pdf |access-date=19 April 2020}}</ref>

====Quotative markers====
Quotative markers are used to mark a section of an utterance as quoted speech (i.e. a quotation). In oral speech, quotative markers act as quotation marks and often include a verb of saying (e.g. ''say''). A quotative marker usually appears either before or after the reported speech or thought, depending on the [[syntax]] of the language.<ref name="tracy"/> For example, compare the following languages:

=====English=====

In English, the quotative verb ''say'' occurs before the quotation:<ref name="tracy"/>
:: a. She '''said''' "Will you answer the phone, will you answer the phone"<ref name="frederica">Frederica Barbieri. ''Quotative Use in American English'', Journal of English Linguistics, Vol. 33/No.3, September 2005.</ref>

In American English, verbs such as ''be like'', ''go'', and ''be all'' are non-standard quotatives that are commonly used in [[colloquialism|colloquial speech]].<ref name="tracy"/><ref name="adfoolen"/> They are observed in the speech of young people not only in American English, but in other [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of English as well (e.g. ''be like'' in New Zealand English,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=King |first1=Brian |title="All us girls were like euuh!": Conversational work of be like in New Zealand adolescent talk |journal=New Zealand English Journal |date=2010 |volume=24 |pages=17–36 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249335742 |access-date=19 April 2020}}</ref> ''be like'' and ''go'' in [[Glasgow]] English<ref name="adfoolen"/>).<ref name="frederica"/><ref name="adfoolen">{{cite book |editor1-last=Ahrenholz |editor1-first=Bernt |editor2-last=Bredel |editor2-first=Ursula |editor3-last=Klein |editor3-first=Wolfgang |editor4-last=Rost-Roth |editor4-first=Martina |editor5-last=Skiba |editor5-first=Romuald |title=Empirische Forschung und Theoriebildung |date=2008 |publisher=Peter Lang |location=Frankfurt am Main |isbn=978-3-631-56930-6 |pages=117–128}}</ref> Though not semantically considered verbs of saying, they are used to convey the same meaning as such verbs. Like ''say'', ''be like'', ''go'', and ''be all'' occur before the quotation:<ref name="tracy"/>
:: b. I'm '''like''' "I'm so sorry you had to wait"<ref name="frederica"/>
:: c. She '''went''' "Who are you going with?"<ref name="adfoolen"/>
:: d. He''''s all''' "Okay, come with me come with me"<ref name="adfoolen"/>

In conversational speech, the use of ''say'' and ''be like'' occurs at about the same frequency,<ref name="frederica"/> though ''say'' tends to be used in more formal contexts (e.g. office hours between professors and students) and ''be like'' tends to occur in more informal contexts (e.g. a conversation between two young people).<ref name="adfoolen"/>

In African American Vernacular English, ''talkin' 'bout'' occurs as a verb of quotation, introducing both direct and indirect quotes, as in:
:: e. They come '''talkin' 'bout''' they is scared of ''me''!<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jones|first=Taylor|date=2016-12-01|title=AAE Talmbout: An Overlooked Verb of Quotation|url=https://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl/vol22/iss2/11|journal=University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics|volume=22|issue=2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cukor-Avila|first=Patricia|date=2002|title=She say, She go, She be like: Verbs of Quotation over Time in African American Vernacular English|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/2842|journal=American Speech|volume=77|issue=1|pages=3–31|doi=10.1215/00031283-77-1-3|s2cid=143904503|issn=1527-2133|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=====Japanese=====

In Japanese, the quotative particle ''to'' along with the verb of saying ''iu'' (say) occur after the quotation; the conjugated form of ''iu'' (say) is ''itta'':<ref name="tracy"/>

{{fs interlinear |lang=ja |indent=2 |abbreviations=COM:complementizer
|c1= <ref name="Coulmas p164"/>
| 太郎 は 晴海　 を 憎んでいる '''と''' '''言った'''。
| Taro wa Harumi o nikundeiru '''to''' '''itta'''.
| Taro TOP Harumi ACC hated COM said
| "Taro said that he hated Harumi." {{lit}} "that 'I hated Harumi'"
}}

The quotative particle ''to'' can also occur with verbs of thinking, such as ''omou'' (think). Like ''to'' and ''iu'' (say),  ''to'' and ''omou'' occur after the quotation.

=====Laal=====

In [[Laal language|Laal]], the quotative evidential ''mɨ́'' is used for non-self quotation<ref name="laal"/> (i.e. quotation in which the speaker quotes someone else, not themself); it is used with a quotative verb ''ɓɨ́lá''. The use of ''mɨ́'' results in an indirect quotation translation. The quotative verb ''bɨ́lá'' occurs before the quotation, while the quotative evidential ''mɨ́'' occurs within the quoted speech ''já mɨ́ nyàg tāā wó'':

{{interlinear |lang=gdm |indent=2 |abbreviations=QEV:quotative evidential
|c1= <ref name="laal"/>
| à<sub>i</sub> '''ɓɨ́lá''' mɨ́ já<sub>*i/j</sub> '''mɨ́''' nyàg tāā wó 
| He '''say''' (say)that I '''QEV''' eat fish NEG
| "He<sub>i</sub> said that I<sub>*i/j</sub> don't/didn't eat fish."
}}

As the above sentence involves a non-self quotation, ''à'' (he) and ''já'' (I) have different indices to show that they refer to different [[referent]]s; only this interpretation is [[well-formedness|well-formed]]. The interpretation in which they share identical indices is ill-formed (i.e. ungrammatical), as indicated by the asterisk.

In addition to quotative markers, speakers also use [[prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] shifts, pauses, pronominal choices, and [[grammatical tense|tense]] to detect the occurrence and boundaries of quotations in spoken utterances.<ref name="tracy"/>