Editing Shift work (section)

==Management==
Though shift work itself remains necessary in many occupations, employers can alleviate some of the negative health consequences of shift work. The United States [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] recommends employers avoid quick shift changes and any rotating shift schedules should rotate forward. Employers should also attempt to minimize the number of consecutive night shifts, long work shifts and overtime work. A poor work environment can exacerbate the strain of shift work. Adequate lighting, clean air, proper heat and air conditioning, and reduced noise can all make shift work more bearable for workers.<ref name="niosh-plain">{{cite book|title=Plain Language About Shiftwork|date=July 1997|publisher=National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health|location=Cincinnati, Ohio|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/97-145.pdf|author1=Roger R. Rosa|author2=Michael J. Colligan|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921072715/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/97-145.pdf|archive-date=2012-09-21}}</ref>

Good [[sleep hygiene]] is recommended.<ref name=":3" /> This includes blocking out noise and light during sleep, maintaining a regular, predictable sleep routine, avoiding heavy foods and alcohol before sleep, and sleeping in a comfortable, cool environment. Alcohol consumption, caffeine consumption and heavy meals in the few hours before sleep can worsen shift work sleep disorders.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /> Exercise in the three hours before sleep can make it difficult to fall asleep.<ref name=":3" />

Free online training programs are available to educate workers and managers about the risks associated with shift work and strategies they can use to prevent these.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/workschedules/education.html|title=CDC – Work Schedules: Shift Work and Long Hours – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic|website=www.cdc.gov|access-date=2016-06-13|date=2018-07-06}}</ref>

===Scheduling===
{{main|Shift-based hiring}}
[[File:ATG - NPTM Photothon 53.jpg|right|thumb|A clock-based device for recording workers' working hours, from the  beginning of 20 century. Exhibit of the [[National Polytechnical Museum]] in Sofia, Bulgaria]]

Algorithmic scheduling of shift work can lead to what has been colloquially termed as "clopening"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boston.com/jobs/news/2015/02/26/the-clopening-shift-may-soon-thing-the-past/GWM5zFB2TIAuBg8iu0Y8bJ/story.html|title=The 'Clopening' Shift May Soon Be a Thing of the Past|work=Boston.com|access-date=3 February 2016}}</ref> where the shift-worker has to work the closing shift of one day and the opening shift of the next day back-to-back resulting in short rest periods between shifts and fatigue. Co-opting employees to fill the shift roster helps to ensure that the human costs<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.workplacestrategiesformentalhealth.com/pdf/Dangerous_Industry_Journal_of_Agricul_Safety_Resource.pdf|title = WSMH}}</ref> are taken into account in a way which is hard for an algorithm to do as it would involve knowing the constraints and considerations of each individual shift worker and assigning a cost metric to each of those factors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ewh.ieee.org/conf/hfpp/presentations/27.pdf|title=IEEE}}</ref> [[Shift based hiring]] which is a recruitment concept that hires people for individual shifts, rather than hiring employees before scheduling them into shifts enables shift workers to indicate their preferences and availability for unfilled shifts through a shift-bidding mechanism. Through this process, the shift hours are evened out by human-driven market mechanism rather than an algorithmic process. This openness can lead to work hours that are tailored to an individual's lifestyle and schedule while ensuring that shifts are optimally filled, in contrast to the generally poor human outcomes of fatigue, stress, estrangement with friends and family and health problems that have been reported with algorithm-based scheduling of work-shifts.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/22/business/late-to-bed-early-to-rise-and-working-tired.html|title=In Service Sector, No Rest for the Working |date=22 February 2015|journal=The New York Times|access-date=3 February 2016|last1=Greenhouse |first1=Steven }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/retailwire/2014/08/19/starbucks-clopening-practices-deemed-inexcusable/|title=Starbucks 'Clopening' Practices Deemed Inexcusable|date=19 August 2014|work=Forbes|access-date=3 February 2016}}</ref>

Mental (cognitive) fatigue due to inadequate sleep an/or disturbances of [[circadian rhythms]] is a common contributor to accidents and untoward incidents.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=James C |title=Anatomy of a Fatigue-Related Accident |date=2013 |publisher=Smashwords |isbn=9781310879265 }}</ref> While this risk cannot be eliminated, it can be managed through personal and administrative controls.  This type of management is conducted through a Fatigue Risk Management System (FRMS).<ref>{{cite web |title=Fatigue Risk management |url=https://pipelineperformancegroup.com/fatigue-risk-management-system/ |website=Fatigue Risk management}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Control Room Management: Fatigue Mitigation |url=https://pipelineperformancegroup.com/fatigue-risk-management-system/ |publisher=PHMSA}}</ref>  One method used within an FRMS is objective fatigue modeling to predict periods of high risk within a 24-hour shift plan.

Missing income is also a large part of shift worker. Several companies run twenty-four-hour shifts. Most of the work is done during the day. When the work dries up, it usually is the second and third shift workers who pay the price. They are told to punch out early or use paid time off if they have any to make up the difference in their paychecks. That practice costs the average worker $92.00 a month.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2011/07/art1full.pdf|title=Nonstandard work schedules over the life course: A first look.}}</ref>

===Medications===
[[Melatonin]] may increase sleep length during both daytime and nighttime sleep in people who work night shifts. [[Zopiclone]] has also been investigated as a potential treatment, but it is unclear if it is effective in increasing daytime sleep time in shift workers. There are, however, no reports of adverse effects.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last1=Liira|first1=J|last2=Verbeek|first2=JH|last3=Costa|first3=G|last4=Driscoll|first4=TR|last5=Sallinen|first5=M|last6=Isotalo|first6=LK|last7=Ruotsalainen|first7=JH|title=Pharmacological interventions for sleepiness and sleep disturbances caused by shift work.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=Aug 12, 2014|volume=2014|issue=8|pages=CD009776|pmid=25113164|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009776.pub2|pmc=10025070}}</ref>

[[Modafinil]] and [[R-modafinil]] are useful to improve alertness and reduce sleepiness in shift workers.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Morgenthaler|first1=TI|last2=Lee-Chiong|first2=T|last3=Alessi|first3=C|last4=Friedman|first4=L|last5=Aurora|first5=RN|last6=Boehlecke|first6=B|last7=Brown|first7=T|last8=Chesson AL|first8=Jr|last9=Kapur|first9=V|last10=Maganti|first10=R|last11=Owens|first11=J|last12=Pancer|first12=J|last13=Swick|first13=TJ|last14=Zak|first14=R|last15=Standards of Practice Committee of the American Academy of Sleep|first15=Medicine|title=Practice parameters for the clinical evaluation and treatment of circadian rhythm sleep disorders. An American Academy of Sleep Medicine report.|journal=Sleep|date=Nov 2007|volume=30|issue=11|pages=1445–59|pmid=18041479|pmc=2082098|doi=10.1093/sleep/30.11.1445}}</ref> Modafinil has a low risk of abuse compared to other similar agents.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wisor |first1=Jonathan |title=Modafinil as a Catecholaminergic Agent: Empirical Evidence and Unanswered Questions |journal=Frontiers in Neurology |date=2013 |volume=4 |pages=139 |pmid=24109471 |doi=10.3389/fneur.2013.00139 |pmc=3791559 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, 10% more participants reported adverse effects (nausea and headache) while taking modafinil. In post-marketing surveillance, modafinil was associated with [[Stevens–Johnson syndrome]]. The European Medicines Agency withdrew the license for modafinil for shift workers for the European market because it judged that the benefits did not outweigh the adverse effects.<ref name=":0"/>

Using [[caffeine]] and naps before night shifts can decrease sleepiness.<!--<ref name=":0" /> --> Caffeine has also been shown to reduce errors made by shift workers.<ref name=":0" />