Editing Sinicization (section)

====Qing dynasty====
The rulers of the [[Qing dynasty]] were [[Manchu people|ethnic Manchus]] who adopted the norms of the [[Mandate of Heaven]] to justify their rule. The "orthodox" historical view emphasized the power of Han Chinese to "sinicize" their conquerors, although more recent research such as the [[New Qing History]] school revealed Manchu rulers were savvy in their manipulation of their subjects and from the 1630s through at least the 18th century, the emperors developed a sense of Manchu identity and used [[Central Asia]]n models of rule as much as Confucian ones. There is also evidence of sinicization, however. For example, Manchus originally had their own separate style of naming from the Han Chinese, but eventually adopted Han Chinese naming practices.

[[Manchu name]]s consisted of more than the two or one syllable [[Chinese name]]s, and when phonetically transcribed into Chinese, they made no sense at all.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=Stanford University Press|quote=famous Manchu figure of the early Qing who belonged to the Niohuru clan) would have been the unwieldy "Niu-gu-lu E-bi-long" in Chinese. Moreover, the characters used in names were typically chosen to represent the sounds of Manchu, and not to carry any particular meaning in Chinese. For educated Han Chinese accustomed to names composed of a familiar surname and one or two elegang characters drawn from a poem or a passage from the classics, Manchu names looked not just different, but absurd. What was oneo to make of a name like E-bi-long, written in Chinese characters meaning "repress-must flourish," or Duo-er-gun, meaning "numerous-thou-roll"? S.... To them they looked like nonsense.... But they are not nonsense in Manchu: "E-bi-long" is the transcription of ebilun, meaning "a delicate or sickly child," and "Duo-er-gun" is the Chinese transcription of dorgon, the Manchu word for badger.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA242|isbn=0-8047-4684-2|page=242|title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China|edition=illustrated, reprint|author=Mark C. Elliott|access-date=March 2, 2012}}</ref> The meaning of the names that Manchus used were also very different from the meanings of Chinese names.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=Stanford University Press|quote=Thus we find names like Nikan (Chinese), Ajige (little), Asiha (young), Haha (nale), Mampi (knot—a reference to the hair?), Kara (black), Fulata (red-eyed), Necin (peaceful), Kirsa (steppe fox), Unahan (colt), Jumara (squirrel), Nimašan (sea eagle), Nomin (lapis lazuli), and Gacuha (toy made out of an animal's anklebone).44 Names such as Jalfungga (long-lived), Fulingga (lucky one), Fulungga (majestic), and Hūturingga (fortunate), were not unknown, either, particularly after the seventeenth century. Although mightily foreign when written as Zha-la-feng-a, Fu-ling-a, Fu-long-a, or Hu-tu-ling-ga|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA242|isbn=0-8047-4684-2|page=242|title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China|edition=illustrated, reprint|author=Mark C. Elliott|access-date=March 2, 2012}}</ref> The Manchus also gave [[number]]s as personal names.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=Stanford University Press|quote=While Chinese names, too, sometimes ended in characters with the sounds "zhu," "bao," and "tai," more often than not, such names in the Qing belonged to Manchus and other bannermen (Chinese bannermen and Mongols sometimes took Manchu-sounding names), even if the attached meaning is not clear (it is not certain that all names in fact had a specific meaning). Giving "numeral names" was another unique Manchu habit. These were names that actually referred to numbers. Sometimes they were given using Manchu numbers—for example, Nadanju (seventy) or Susai (fifty). Other times number names used the Manchu transcriptions of Chinese numbers, as in the name Loišici (= Liushi qi, "sixty-seven"), Bašinu (= bashi wu, "eight-five").45 Such names, unheard of among the Han, were quite common among the Manchus, an appeared from time to time among Chinese bannermen. Popular curiosity about this odd custom in Qing was partly satisfied by the nineteenth-century bannerman-writer Fu-ge, who explained in his book of "jottings" that naming children for their grandparents' ages was a way of wishing longevity to the newly born.46|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA243|isbn=0-8047-4684-2|page=243|title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China|edition=illustrated, reprint|author=Mark C. Elliott|access-date=March 2, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105080620/http://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA243|archive-date=January 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

Historical records report that as early as 1776, the [[Qianlong Emperor]] was shocked to see a high Manchu official, [[Guo'ermin]], not understand what the emperor was telling him in Manchu, despite coming from the Manchu stronghold of Shengjing (now [[Shenyang]]).<ref>Yu Hsiao-jung, [http://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/colloque/diaporamas/yu2.pdf Manchu Rule over China and the Attrition of the Manchu Language] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619102136/http://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/colloque/diaporamas/yu2.pdf |date=19 June 2013 }}</ref> By the 19th century even the imperial court had lost fluency in the language. The [[Jiaqing Emperor]] (reigned 1796–1820) complained that his officials were not proficient at understanding or writing Manchu.<ref name="rhoads">Edward J. M. Rhoads, ''Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928.'' University of Washington Press, 2000. Pages 52–54. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}. Partially available [https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C on Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040544/https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C |date=2023-09-27 }}</ref>

Eventually, the Qing royal family (the [[Aisin Gioro]]) gave their children Chinese names, which were separate from the Manchu names, and even adopted the Chinese practice of [[generation name]]s, although its usage was inconsistent and error-ridden. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Manchu royal family stopped using Manchu names.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=University of Washington Press|quote=At Xiuyan, in eastern Fengtian, the Manchus in the seventh or eighth generation continued as before to give their sons polysyllabic Manchu personal names that were meaningless when transliterated into Chinese, but at the same time they began to also give them Chinese names that were disyllabic and meaningful and that conformed to the generational principle. Thus, in the seventh generation of the Gūwalgiya lineage were sons with two names, one Manchu and one Chinese, such as Duolunbu/Shiman, Delinbu/Shizhu, and Tehengbu/Shizhen. Within the family and the banner, these boys used their Manchu name, but outside they used their Han-style name. Then, from the eighth or ninth generation one, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Gūwalgiya at Xiuyan stopped giving polysyllabic Manchu names to their sons, who thereafter used Chinese names exclusively.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56|page=56|title=Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928|edition=reprint, illustrated|author=Edward J. M. Rhoads|access-date=March 2, 2012|isbn=9780295804125|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105080701/http://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56|archive-date=January 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Niohuru]] family of the Manchu changed their family name to [[Lang (Chinese surname)|Lang]], which sounded like "wolf" in Chinese, since wolf in Manchu was Niohuru; thus forming a translation.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=University of Washington Press|quote=and when the ancient and politically prominent Manchu lineage of Niohuru adopted the Han-style surname Lang, he ridiculed them for having "forgotten their roots." (The Niohuru, whose name was derived from niohe, Manchu for wolf," had chosen Lang as their surname because it was a homophone for the Chinese word for "wolf.")|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56|page=56|title=Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928|edition=reprint, illustrated|author=Edward J. M. Rhoads|access-date=March 2, 2012|isbn=9780295804125|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105080701/http://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56|archive-date=January 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

Although the Manchus replaced their Manchu names with Chinese personal names, the [[Eight Banners|Manchu bannermen]] followed their traditional practice in typically used their first/personal name to address themselves and not their last name, while Han Chinese bannermen used their last name and first in normal Chinese style.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=University of Washington Press|quote=Manchu men had abandoned their original polysyllabic personal names infavor of Han-style disyllabic names; they had adopted the Han practice of choosing characters with auspicious meanings for the names; and they had assigned names on a generational basis.... Except among some Hanjun such as the two Zhao brothers, bannermen still did not, by and large, use their|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56|page=56|title=Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928|edition=reprint, illustrated|author=Edward J. M. Rhoads|access-date=March 2, 2012|isbn=9780295804125|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105080701/http://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56|archive-date=January 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=University of Washington Press|quote=family name but called themselves only by their personal name—for example, Yikuang, Ronglu, Gangyi, Duanfang, Xiliang, and Tieliang. In this respect, most Manchus remained conspicuously different from Han.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA57|page=57|title=Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928|edition=reprint, illustrated|author=Edward J. M. Rhoads|access-date=March 2, 2012|isbn=9780295804125|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105080808/http://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA57|archive-date=January 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

Usage of surnames was not traditional to the Manchu while it was to the Han Chinese.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=Stanford University Press|quote=Chinese names consist typically of a single-character surname and a given name of one or two characters, the latter usually chosen for their auspicious meaning. Manchu names were different. For one thing, Manchus did not commonly employ surnames, identifying themselves usually by their banner affiliation rather than by their lineage. Even if they had customarily used both surname and given name, this would not have eliminated the difference with Han names, since Manchu names of any kind were very often longer than two characters—that is, two syllables— in length. Where a Han name (to pick at random two names from the eighteenth century) might read Zhang Tingyu or Dai Zhen, the full name of, say, Ebilun (a|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA241|isbn=0-8047-4684-2|page=241|title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China|edition=illustrated, reprint|author=Mark C. Elliott|access-date=March 2, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231223407/http://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA241|archive-date=December 31, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>