Editing Tuskegee Syphilis Study (section)

==Ethical implications==
The U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee highlighted issues in race and science.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chadwick|first=A.|date=July 25, 2002|title=Remembering the Tuskegee Experiment|work=NPR}}</ref> The aftershocks of this study, and other [[Human experimentation in the United States|human experiments in the United States]], led to the establishment of the [[National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research]] and the [[National Research Act]].<ref name="HHS-2008" /> The latter requires the establishment of institutional review boards (IRBs) at institutions receiving federal support (such as grants, cooperative agreements, or contracts). Foreign consent procedures can be substituted which offer similar protections and must be submitted to the ''[[Federal Register]]'' unless a statute or Executive Order requires otherwise.<ref name="HHS-2008" />

In the period following World War II, the revelation of [[the Holocaust]] and related [[Nazi human experimentation|Nazi medical abuses]] brought about changes in international law. Western allies formulated the [[Nuremberg Code]] to protect the rights of research subjects. In 1964, the [[World Medical Association]]'s [[Declaration of Helsinki]] specified that experiments involving human beings needed the "informed consent" of participants.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fischer|first=Bernard A. IV.|date=October 2005|title=A Summary of Important Documents in the Field of Research Ethics|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=32|issue=1|pages=69–80|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbj005|pmid=16192409|pmc=2632196}}</ref> In spite of these events, the protocols of the study were not re-evaluated according to the new standards, even though whether or not the study should continue was re-evaluated several times (including in 1969 by the CDC). U.S. government officials and medical professionals kept silent and the study did not end until 1972, nearly three decades after the Nuremberg trials.<ref name="Gray-1998" />

Writer James Jones said that the physicians were fixated on African-American sexuality. They believed that African-Americans willingly had sexual relations with infected persons (although no one had been told his diagnosis).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jones|first=James H.|title=Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment|publisher=Free Press|year=1993|location=New York|pages=22–23|chapter=A Notoriously Syphilis-Soaked Race}}</ref> Due to the lack of information, the participants were manipulated into continuing the study without full knowledge of their role or their choices.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Katz|first1=Ralph|title=The Search for the Legacy of the USPHS Syphilis Study at Tuskegee|last2=Warren|first2=Rueben|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2011|location=Lanham}}</ref> Since the late 20th century, IRBs established in association with clinical studies requirements that all involved in the study be willing and voluntary participants.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perkiss|first=Abigail|date=2008|title=Public Accountability And The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiments: A Restorative Justice Approach|journal=Berkeley Journal of African-American Law & Policy|pages=70}}</ref>

The Tuskegee University Legacy Museum has on display a check issued by the United States government on behalf of Dan Carlis to Lloyd Clements, Jr., a descendant of one of the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee participants.<ref name="Clements-2009">{{Cite news|last=Clements|first=Lloyd Jr. |date=August 20, 2009|title=Need commission to address Black health care needs|work=The Tuskegee News}}</ref> Lloyd Clements, Jr.'s great-grandfather Dan Carlis and two of his uncles, Ludie Clements and Sylvester Carlis, were in the study. Original legal paperwork for Sylvester Carlis related to the study is on display at the museum as well. Lloyd Clements, Jr. has worked with noted historian Susan Reverby concerning his family's involvement with the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee.<ref name="Clements-2009" />