Editing Clements Markham (section)

== Royal Geographical Society ==

=== Honorary secretary, 1863–1888 ===
[[File:CRMarkham25.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Clements Markham at the time of his election to the Royal Geographical Society]]
In November 1854, Markham had been elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Geographical Society]]. The Society soon became the centre of his geographical interests, and in 1863 he was appointed its honorary secretary, a position he was to hold for 25&nbsp;years.<ref name= Baigent/>

In addition to his work in promoting the Nares Arctic expedition, Markham followed the work of other Arctic explorers, organising a reception in 1880, for the Swedish explorer [[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]] after the latter's successful navigation of the [[North-East Passage]], and monitoring the progress of the American expeditions of [[Adolphus Greely]] and [[George W. DeLong]]. Release from the India Office provided Markham with more time for travel. He made regular trips to Europe, and in 1885, went to America, where he met with President [[Grover Cleveland]] in the [[White House]]. Throughout his secretaryship Markham was a prolific writer of travel books and biographies, and of many papers presented to the RGS and elsewhere.

He was the author of the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' (ninth edition) article entitled "Progress of Geographical Discovery". He also wrote popular histories. Within the RGS Markham was responsible for the revision of the Society's standard ''Hints to Travellers'', and for relaunching the journal ''Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society'' in a much livelier format.<ref>Jones, pp.&nbsp;33–36.</ref> Markham conducted the ''Geographical Magazine'' from 1872 to 1878, when it became merged in the ''Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society''.<ref name=EB1911/>

In parallel with his RGS duties Markham served as secretary of the [[Hakluyt Society]] until 1886, subsequently becoming that society's president. As part of his work for this body, Markham was responsible for many translations from Spanish into English of rare accounts of travel, in particular those relating to Peru. In time scholars would express doubts about the quality of some of these translations, finding them prepared in haste and lacking in rigour.<ref name= Baigent/> Nevertheless, this work ran to 22&nbsp;volumes in the society's publications. In 1873, Markham had been elected a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]],<ref name= Baigent/> and in subsequent years received several overseas honours, including the Portuguese [[Order of Christ (Portugal)|Order of Christ]] and the [[Order of the Rose]] of Brazil. He briefly considered, but did not pursue, the idea of a parliamentary career.<ref>A. Markham, pp.&nbsp;267–268.</ref>

Markham maintained his interest in the navy, particularly in the training of its officers. He often visited the merchant officer training vessels, {{HMS|Conway|school ship|6}} and [[Thames Nautical Training College|HMS ''Worcester'']], and became a member of the latter's governing body. In early 1887 he accepted an invitation from his cousin Albert Markham, who now commanded the Royal Navy's training squadron, to join the squadron at its station in the West Indies. Markham spent three months aboard the flagship {{HMS|Active|1869|6}}, during which, on 1&nbsp;March 1887, he had his first encounter with [[Robert Falcon Scott]], who was serving as a midshipman aboard HMS ''Rover''. Scott was victorious in a race between [[cutter (boat)|cutters]], an event that was noted and remembered by Markham.<ref>Crane, p.&nbsp;82.</ref>

=== President, 1893–1905 ===
[[File:Clements_Markham_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Markham as President of the Royal Geographical Society]]
In May 1888, Markham resigned from his position as RGS Secretary, finding himself at odds with the Society's new policies which appeared to favour education over exploration.<ref>Jones, p.&nbsp;38.</ref> On his retirement he was awarded the Society's [[Founder's Medal]] for what were described at the presentation ceremony as his "incomparable services to the Society".<ref>A. Markham, p.&nbsp;286.</ref>

The next few years were filled with travel and writing. There were further cruises with the training squadron, and extended visits to the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] and the Mediterranean. In 1893, during the course of one of these journeys, Markham was elected ''in absentia'' president of the society. This unexpected elevation was the result of a dispute within the Society over the question of women members, about which Markham had kept silent. When in July 1893, the issue was put to a special general meeting, the proposal to admit women was narrowly defeated despite an overwhelming postal ballot in favour. In these circumstances the Society's President, Sir [[M. E. Grant Duff]], resigned his office. The 22&nbsp;existing women members were allowed to remain, but no more were admitted until January 1913 when the RGS changed its policy.<ref>{{cite web|title= RGS Additional Papers: election of women as Fellows|website= AIM25|url= http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/vcdf/detail?coll_id=10688&inst_id=10&nv1=search&nv2=|access-date= 6 May 2009|archive-date= 25 May 2024|archive-url= https://archive.today/20240525234439/https://www.webcitation.org/67YnzwXgP?url=http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/vcdf/detail%3Fcoll_id=10688|url-status= dead}}</ref>

Although Markham was not the first choice as a replacement for Grant Duff—other notable figures were approached—he had kept out of the women members controversy and was broadly acceptable to the membership.<ref>Jones, pp.&nbsp;51–56.</ref> Shortly after his accession to the presidency, in recognition of his services to geography Markham was promoted [[Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath]], and became Sir Clements Markham.<ref name= Baigent/>

In a letter written many years later, Markham said that on the assumption of the presidency he had felt the need, after the dispute over women, to "restore the Society's good name" by the adoption of some great enterprise. He chose Antarctic exploration as the basis for this mission;<ref>Jones, p.&nbsp;57.</ref> there had been no significant Antarctic exploration by any country since Sir [[James Clark Ross]]'s expedition fifty years previously.<ref>Coleman, p.&nbsp;239.</ref> A new impetus was provided through a lecture given to the RGS in 1893, by the oceanographer [[John Murray (oceanographer)|John Murray]], calling for "an expedition to resolve the outstanding questions still posed in the south."<ref name= Crane75>Crane, p.&nbsp;75.</ref> In response to Murray the RGS and the [[Royal Society]] formed a joint committee, to campaign for a British Antarctic expedition.<ref name= Jones57/>

=== National Antarctic Expedition, 1895–1904 ===
{{Main|Discovery Expedition}}
Murray's call for the resumption of Antarctic exploration was taken up again two years later, when the RGS acted as host to the sixth International Geographical Congress in August 1895. This Congress passed a unanimous resolution:

{{blockquote|[That] the exploration of the Antarctic Regions is the greatest piece of geographical exploration still to be undertaken. That, in view of the additions to knowledge in almost every branch of science which would result from such a scientific exploration, the Congress recommends that the scientific societies throughout the world should urge, in whatever way seems to them most effective, that this work should be undertaken before the close of the century.<ref name= Jones57>Jones, pp.&nbsp;57–59.</ref>}}

The joint committee organising the British response to this resolution contained a difference of view. Murray and the Royal Society argued for a largely civilian expedition, directed and staffed by scientists, while Markham and most of the RGS contingent saw a National Antarctic Expedition as a means of reviving naval glories, and wanted the expedition organised accordingly.<ref name="Crane75"/> Markham's tenacity finally won the day when in 1900 he secured the appointment of his protégé Robert Falcon Scott, by then a torpedo lieutenant on {{HMS|Majestic|1895|6}}, as the expedition's overall commander. In doing so he thwarted an attempt to place the leadership in the hands of Professor [[John Walter Gregory]] of the [[British Museum]].<ref>Crane, pp.&nbsp;92–93, 97–101.</ref><ref name= Jones62/>

In the view of Markham's critics, this represented the subordination of scientific work to naval adventure,<ref name= Jones62>Jones, pp.&nbsp;62–64.</ref> although the "Instructions to the Commander", drawn up by Markham, give equal priorities to geographical and scientific work.<ref>Savours, pp.&nbsp;16–17.</ref> The "science versus adventure" arguments were renewed when, after the return of the expedition, there was criticism over the accuracy and professionalism of some of its scientific results.<ref>Crane, pp.&nbsp;392–394.</ref>

[[File:Discovery at barrier1902.jpg|thumb|left|''Discovery'' moored in 1902]]
Markham faced further problems in securing funding for the expedition. In 1898, after three years' effort, only a fraction of what was required had been promised. Meanwhile, the Anglo-Norwegian explorer [[Carsten Borchgrevink]] had obtained a sum of £40,000 (over £3&nbsp;million in 2008)<ref name= MW/> from publisher [[George Newnes]], to finance a private Antarctic venture.<ref name= Jones57/> Markham was furious, believing that funds were being diverted from his own project, and denounced Borchgrevink as "evasive, a liar and a fraud".<ref>E. Huxley, p.&nbsp;35.</ref>

He was equally hostile to [[William Speirs Bruce]], the Scottish explorer who had written to Markham asking to join the National Antarctic Expedition. On receiving no confirmation of an appointment, Bruce obtained finance from the Scottish [[Coats baronets]] family and organised his own [[Scottish National Antarctic Expedition]]. Markham accused Bruce of "mischievous rivalry", and of attempting to "cripple the National Expedition&nbsp;... in order to get up a scheme for yourself".<ref>Speak, pp.&nbsp;71–75.</ref> The Scottish expedition duly sailed, but Markham remained unforgiving towards it, and used his influence to ensure that its participants received no Polar Medals on their return.<ref>Speak, pp.&nbsp;127–131.</ref>

A substantial private donation and a government grant finally allowed the National Antarctic Expedition to proceed. A new ship, the {{RRS|Discovery||2}}, was built, and a mainly naval crew of officers and crewmen appointed, along with a scientific staff which was later described as "underpowered".<ref>Crane, p.&nbsp;279.</ref> ''Discovery'' sailed on 5&nbsp;August 1901, after an inspection by King [[Edward VII]], at which Markham was present to introduce Scott and the officers. The ship was gone for just over three years during which time, from a base in the [[Ross Sea]] area, significant explorations of this sector of Antarctica were carried out, along with an extensive scientific programme. Although it was reported by the ''Times'' as "one of the most successful [expeditions] that ever ventured into the Polar regions, north or south,"<ref>''Times'', 10&nbsp;September 1904, reported in Jones, p.&nbsp;68.</ref> it was largely ignored by the government of the day.<ref name= Jones72>Jones, p.&nbsp;72.</ref> Markham was criticised in official quarters for privately sanctioning a second season in the Antarctic, contrary to the original plan, and then being unable to raise funds for the expedition's relief in 1904. The cost for this had to be borne on [[His Majesty's Treasury]].<ref>Crane, pp.&nbsp;278–379.</ref>