Editing Code talker (section)

==={{anchor|Navajo code talkers}}Navajo===
[[File:Navajo Indian communication men with the Marines on Saipan landed with the first assault waves to his the beach. - NARA - 532526.tif|thumb|upright=1.2|Navajo code talkers, Saipan, June 1944|alt=Navajo code talkers]]
[[Philip Johnston (code talker)|Philip Johnston]], a civil engineer for the city of Los Angeles,<ref>{{cite book|last=Holm|first=Tom|title=Code Talkers and Warriors|publisher=Chelsea House Pub|year=2007|access-date=November 28, 2012|author-link=Tom Holm|url=https://archive.org/details/codetalkerswarri00holm_0|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0791093405}}</ref> proposed the use of the [[Navajo language]] to the United States Marine Corps at the beginning of World War II. Johnston, a World War I veteran, was raised on the [[Navajo Nation|Navajo reservation]] as the son of missionaries to the Navajo. He was able to converse in what is called "Trader's Navajo," a [[Pidgin|pidgin language]]. He was among a few non-Navajo who had enough exposure to it to understand some of its nuances. Many Navajo men enlisted shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor and eagerly contributed to the war effort.

Because Navajo has a complex [[Navajo grammar|grammar]], it is not [[mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with even its closest relatives within the [[Na-Dene languages|Na-Dene family]] to provide meaningful information. It was still an unwritten language at the time, and Johnston believed Navajo could satisfy the military requirement for an undecipherable code. Its complex syntax, phonology, and numerous dialects made it unintelligible to anyone without extensive exposure and training. One estimate indicates that fewer than 30 non-Navajo could understand the language during World War II.<ref>{{cite web|last=Vogel|first=Clayton|title=Letter to Commandant, USMC|url=http://archive.library.nau.edu/u?/cpa,44718|work=Demonstration in California, 1942|publisher=[[Northern Arizona University]], Cline Library|access-date=July 20, 2011|author2=Johnston, Philip|author-link2=Philip Johnston (code talker)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140705092953/http://archive.library.nau.edu/cdm/ref/collection/cpa/id/44718|archive-date=July 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

In early 1942, Johnston met with the commanding general of the Amphibious Corps, Major General [[Clayton B. Vogel]], and his staff. Johnston staged simulated combat conditions, demonstrating that Navajo men could transmit and decode a three-line message in 20 seconds, compared to the 30 minutes it took the machines of the time.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Native Words, Native Warriors|url=https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/code-talkers|access-date=2021-03-09|website=americanindian.si.edu|language=en}}</ref> The idea of using Navajo speakers as code talkers was accepted; Vogel recommended that the Marines recruit 200 Navajo. However, that recommendation was cut to one platoon to use as a pilot project to develop and test the feasibility of a code. On May 4, 1942, twenty-nine Navajo men were sworn into service at [[Fort Wingate]], an old US Army fort converted into a [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] boarding school. They were organized as Platoon 382. The first 29 Navajo recruits attended boot camp in May 1942. This first group created the Navajo code at [[Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton|Camp Pendleton]].<ref name="ww2fact">{{cite web |date=1992-09-17 |title=Navajo Code Talkers: World War II Fact Sheet |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/code-talkers.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104121421/https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/code-talkers.html |archive-date=November 4, 2017 |access-date=March 12, 2014 |publisher=[[Naval Historical Center]]}}</ref>

====The First Twenty-Nine and the creation of the code====
One of the key features of the Navajo Code Talkers is that they employed a coded version of their language. Other Navajos not trained in the Navajo Code could not decipher the messages being sent.

Platoon 382 was the Marine Corps's first "all-Indian, all-Navajo" Platoon. The members of this platoon would become known as ''The First Twenty-Nine''. Most were recruited from near the Fort Wingate, NM, area. The youngest was William Dean Yazzie (aka Dean Wilson), who was only 15 when he was recruited. The oldest was [[Carl Nelson Gorman|Carl N. Gorman]]—who with his son, R. C. Gorman, would become an artist of great acclaim and design the Code Talkers' logo—at age 35. 
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Names of the First Twenty-Nine and areas of birth<ref>{{Cite book |title=Our Fathers, Our Grandfathers, Our Heroes The Navajo Code Talkers of World War II A Photographic Exhibit |publisher=Circle of Light, Navajo Educational Project |year=2004 |location=Gallup, New Mexico}}</ref>
!Code talker's name
!Area of birth
!Other notes to service
|-
|Samuel Begay
|Toadlena, AZ
|
|-
|John Brown, Jr
|Chinle, AZ
|
|-
|Lowell Damon
|Fort Defiance, AZ
|
|-
|James Dixon
|Shiprock, NM
|
|-
|Carl Gorman
|Chinle, AZ
|
|-
|Alfred Leonard
|Lukachukai, AZ
|
|-
|Johnny Manuelito
|Sheep Springs, NM
|
|-
|William McCabe
|Ganado, AZ
|Purple Heart
|-
|Balmer Slowtalker (aka Joe Palmer)
|Leupp, AZ
|
|-
|Nelson Thompson
|Leupp, AZ
|Purple Heart
|-
|Benjamin Cleveland
|Fort Defiance, AZ
|Purple Heart
|-
|Jack Nez
|Canyon del Muerto, AZ
|
|-
|Oscar Ilthma
|Lupton, AZ
|Purple Heart
|-
|George Dennison
|Fort Defiance, AZ
|
|-
|Chester Nez
|Two Wells, AZ
|
|-
|Roy Begay
|Black Mountain, AZ
|
|-
|Cozy Brown
|Chinle, AZ
|
|-
|Eugene Crawford
|Tohatchi, NM
|
|-
|John Benally
|Fort Defiance, AZ
|
|-
|Lloyd Oliver
|Fruitland, NM
|
|-
|John Willie
|Shonto, AZ
|
|-
|Charlie Begay
|Tocito, NM
|Purple Heart
|-
|Wilsie Bitsie
|Rehoboth, NM
|
|-
|Frank Denny Pete
|Fruitland, NM
|Purple Heart
|-
|John Chee
|Tocito, NM
|
|-
|Allen Dale June
|Kaibito, AZ
|
|-
|Harry Tsosie
|Rough Rock, AZ
|Purple Heart, KIA
|-
|David Curley
|Phoenix, AZ
|
|-
|Bill Yazzie (aka Dean Wilson)
|TeecNosPos, AZ
|
|}
The Navajo code was formally developed and modeled on the [[Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet]] that [[spelling alphabet|uses agreed-upon English words to represent letters]]. Since it was determined that phonetically spelling out all military terms letter by letter into words while in combat would be too time-consuming, some [[Glossary of military abbreviations|terms]], [[List of established military terms|concepts]], [[List of military tactics|tactics]], and instruments of modern warfare were given uniquely formal descriptive nomenclatures in Navajo. For example, the word for ''shark'' referred to a destroyer, while ''silver oak leaf'' indicated the rank of lieutenant colonel.<ref name=NYT>{{cite news|last1=Fox|first1=Margalit|title=Chester Nez, 93, Dies; Navajo Words Washed From Mouth Helped Win War|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/06/us/chester-nez-dies-at-93-his-native-tongue-helped-to-win-a-war-of-words.html|access-date=August 4, 2014|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=June 5, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805010224/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/06/us/chester-nez-dies-at-93-his-native-tongue-helped-to-win-a-war-of-words.html|archive-date=August 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Deployment and evolution of the code and post-war code talkers====
A [[codebook]] was developed to teach new initiates the many relevant words and concepts. The text was for classroom purposes only and was never to be taken into the field. The code talkers memorized all these variations and practiced their rapid use under stressful conditions during training. Navajo speakers who had not been trained in the code work would have no idea what the code talkers' messages meant; they would hear only truncated and disjointed strings of individual, unrelated nouns and verbs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Durrett |first1=Deanne |title=Unsung Heroes of World War II: The Story of the Navajo Code Talkers |date=2009 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0803224568 |page=78 |quote=The code was designed so that even a person who spoke Navajo as his native language would not understand the coded messages.  Only those who has received Code Talker training could decode the messages.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Holiday |first1=Samuel |last2=McPherson |first2=Robert S. |title=Under the Eagle: Samuel Holiday, Navajo Code Talker |date=2013 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0806151014 |pages=120–122}}</ref>

[[File:Code Talkers Monument in Ocala, Florida Memorial Park.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Code Talkers Monument Ocala, Florida Memorial Park|alt=Code talker memorial with etched words: "Navajo Indian Code Talkers USMC. They used their native language skills to direct the US Marine Corps Artillery fire during WWII in the Pacific area. Japanese could not break the code. Thus, these early Americans exemplified the spirit of America's fighting men. Sponsored by: Disabled Veterans South Marion DAV#85 serving veterans and dependents." The memorial also includes the United States Marine Corps emblem.]]
The Navajo code talkers were commended for the skill, speed, and accuracy they demonstrated throughout the war. At the [[Battle of Iwo Jima]], Major Howard Connor, [[5th Marine Division]] signal officer, had six Navajo code talkers working around the clock during the first two days of the battle. These six sent and received over 800 messages, all without error. Connor later said, "Were it not for the Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Iwo Jima."<ref name="ww2fact" />

After incidents where Navajo code talkers were mistaken for ethnic Japanese and were captured by other American soldiers, several were assigned a personal bodyguard whose principal duty was to protect them from their side. According to Bill Toledo, one of the second groups after the original 29, they had a secret secondary duty: if their charge was at risk of being captured, they were to shoot him to protect the code. Fortunately, none was ever called upon to do so.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-code-talkers-29-05-2002/ |title=The Code Talkers |date=May 29, 2002 |first=Mary-Jayne |last=McKay |publisher=[[CBS News]] |access-date=July 7, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.math.ucsd.edu/~crypto/Projects/MichaelMay/Navajo%20Code%20Site/Procon.html |title=Navajo Code Talkers |publisher=[[UCSD]] |access-date=July 7, 2020}}</ref>

To ensure consistent use of code terminologies throughout the Pacific theater, representative code talkers of each of the US Marine [[Division (military)|divisions]] met in Hawaii to discuss shortcomings in the code, incorporate new terms into the system, and update their codebooks. These representatives, in turn, trained other code talkers who could not attend the meeting. As the war progressed, additional code words were added and incorporated program-wide. In other instances, informal shortcuts [[Code word (communication)|code word]]s were devised for a particular [[military campaign|campaign]] and not disseminated beyond the area of operation. Examples of code words include the Navajo word for ''buzzard'', {{spell-nv|jeeshóóʼ}}, which was used for ''bomber'', while the code word used for ''submarine'', {{spell-nv|béésh łóóʼ}}, meant ''iron fish'' in Navajo.<ref name="latimes">{{cite news |first=Dennis |last=McLellan |title=Joe Morris Sr. dies at 85; Navajo code talker during World War II |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-joe-morris-20110722,0,3839149,full.story |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=July 24, 2011 |access-date=July 29, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221095650/http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-joe-morris-20110722,0,3839149,full.story |archive-date=December 21, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The last of the original 29 Navajo code talkers who developed the code, [[Chester Nez]], died on June 4, 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-newmexico-navajo-idUSKBN0EF1Z920140604 |title=Last of Navajo 'code talkers' dies in New Mexico |publisher=reuters.com |date=2014-06-04 |first=Joseph |last=Kolb |access-date=June 4, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604211125/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/06/04/us-usa-newmexico-navajo-idUSKBN0EF1Z920140604 |archive-date=June 4, 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Four of the last nine Navajo code talkers used in the military died in 2019: [[Alfred K. Newman]] died on January 13, 2019, at the age of 94.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/16/us/navajo-code-talker-alfred-newman-death-trnd/index.html|title=Alfred Newman, one of the last remaining Navajo Code Talkers, dies at 94|first=Eric|last=Levenson|date=January 16, 2019|publisher=CNN|access-date=January 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121121901/https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/16/us/navajo-code-talker-alfred-newman-death-trnd/index.html|archive-date=January 21, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> On May 10, 2019, [[Fleming Begaye Sr.]] died at the age of 97.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/11/obituaries/fleming-begaye-sr-dead.html|title=Fleming Begaye, Navajo Code Talker Honored at White House, Dies at 97|last=Zaveri|first=Mihir|date=2019-05-11|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-05-13|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513160747/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/11/obituaries/fleming-begaye-sr-dead.html|archive-date=May 13, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> New Mexico State Senator [[John Pinto]], elected in 1977, died in office on May 24, 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nmpoliticalreport.com/2019/05/24/nm-mourns-long-time-state-senator-john-pinto/ |title=NM mourns long-time state senator, John Pinto |last=Lyman |first=Andy |date=May 24, 2019 |access-date=May 25, 2019 |work=NM Political Report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525003928/https://nmpoliticalreport.com/2019/05/24/nm-mourns-long-time-state-senator-john-pinto/ |archive-date=May 25, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> William Tully Brown died in June 2019 aged 96.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://wset.com/news/nation-world/navajo-code-talker-william-tully-brown-dies-at-96-3rd-death-from-group-in-past-month|title=Navajo Code Talker William Tully Brown dies at 96; 3rd death from group in past month|agency=Associated Press|date=June 4, 2019|website=WSET|access-date=June 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606055850/https://wset.com/news/nation-world/navajo-code-talker-william-tully-brown-dies-at-96-3rd-death-from-group-in-past-month|archive-date=June 6, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Joe Vandever Sr. died at 96 on January 31, 2020.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Colbert |first1=Claire |title=Joe Vandever Sr., Navajo Code Talker, dies at 96 |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/02/us/navajo-code-talker-dies-trnd/index.html |access-date=2 February 2020 |publisher=CNN |date=February 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202231307/https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/02/us/navajo-code-talker-dies-trnd/index.html |archive-date=February 2, 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Samuel Sandoval]] died on 29 July 2022, at the age of 98.<ref>{{cite news |title=Navajo Code Talker Samuel Sandoval dies; 3 left from group |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory/navajo-code-talker-samuel-sandoval-dies-left-group-87684393 |access-date=31 July 2022 |publisher=ABC News |date=31 July 2022}}</ref><ref>[https://people.com/human-interest/wwii-navajo-code-talker-samuel-sandoval-dead-at-98/ WWII Navajo Code Talker Samuel Sandoval Dead at 98: 'a Loving and Courageous Person'] (July 31, 2022) ''[[People (magazine)|People]]''</ref> [[John Kinsel Sr.]] died on 18 October 2024, at the age of 107.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quintero |first=Donovan |date=2024-10-19 |title=Navajo Code Talker John Kinsel Sr. passes away at 107 |url=https://navajotimes.com/reznews/navajo-code-talker-john-kinsel-sr-passes-away-at-107/ |access-date=2024-10-20 |website=Navajo Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Becenti |first=Arlyssa D. |title=Navajo Nation Code Talker John Kinsel dies at 107 in Arizona |url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/arizona/2024/10/19/one-of-the-last-remaining-navajo-code-talkers-john-kinsel-dies-at-107-in-arizona/75757722007/ |access-date=2024-10-20 |website=The Arizona Republic |language=en-US}}</ref> Only two remaining members are still living as of 2024, Thomas H. Begay and former Navajo chairman [[Peter MacDonald (Navajo leader)|Peter MacDonald]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-20 |title=One of the last Navajo Code Talkers from World War II dies at 107 |url=https://apnews.com/article/navajo-code-talkers-word-war-ii-5f527f43eebaede11eb86f7bdad27a39 |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref>

Some code talkers such as Chester Nez and William Dean Yazzie (aka Dean Wilson) continued to serve in the Marine Corps through the Korean War. Rumors of the deployment of the Navajo code into the [[Korean War]] and after have never been proven. The code remained classified until 1968. The Navajo code is the only spoken military code never to have been deciphered.<ref name=NYT />