Editing Computing (section)

=={{Anchor|DISCIPLINES}}Sub-disciplines of computing==

=== Computer engineering ===
{{Main|Computer engineering}}

Computer engineering is a [[academic discipline|discipline]] that integrates several fields of [[electrical engineering]] and [[computer science]] required to develop computer hardware and software.<ref>{{Cite book | author1 = IEEE Computer Society | author-link = IEEE Computer Society | author2 = ACM | author-link2 = Association for Computing Machinery | title = Computer Engineering 2004: Curriculum Guidelines for Undergraduate Degree Programs in Computer Engineering | url = http://www.acm.org/education/education/curric_vols/CE-Final-Report.pdf | access-date = 17 December 2012 | date = 12 December 2004 | page = iii | quote = Computer System engineering has traditionally been viewed as a combination ofboth electronic engineering (EE) and computer science (CS). | archive-date = 12 June 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190612130313/https://www.acm.org/education/education/curric_vols/CE-Final-Report.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> Computer engineers usually have training in [[electronic engineering]] (or [[electrical engineering]]), [[software design]], and hardware-software integration, rather than just software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual [[microprocessor]]s, personal computers, and [[supercomputer]]s, to [[circuit design]]. This field of engineering includes not only the design of hardware within its own domain, but also the interactions between hardware and the context in which it operates.<ref>{{Cite web
 | last = Trinity College Dublin | url = http://www.tcd.ie/Engineering/about/what_is_eng/computer_eng_intro.html | title = What is Computer System Engineering | access-date = 21 April 2006}}, "Computer engineers need not only to understand how computer systems themselves work, but also how they integrate into the larger picture. Consider the car. A modern car contains many separate computer systems for controlling such things as the engine timing, the brakes and the air bags. To be able to design and implement such a car, the computer engineer needs a broad theoretical understanding of all these various subsystems & how they interact.</ref>

=== Software engineering ===
{{Main|Software engineering}}

Software engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, and quantifiable approach to the design, development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches. That is, the application of engineering to software.<ref name="BoDu04">{{cite book|pages =1| first1= Alain| last1=Abran| first2=James W.| last2=Moore| first3=Pierre| last3=Bourque| first4=Robert| last4=Dupuis| first5=Leonard L.| last5=Tripp| title=Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge| year=2004| publisher=IEEE| isbn=978-0-7695-2330-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author = ACM | year = 2006 | url = http://computingcareers.acm.org/?page_id=12 | title = Computing Degrees & Careers | publisher = ACM | access-date = 23 November 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110617053818/http://computingcareers.acm.org/?page_id=12 | archive-date = 17 June 2011 | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Laplante | first = Phillip | title = What Every Engineer Should Know about Software Engineering | publisher = CRC | location = Boca Raton | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-8493-7228-5 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pFHYk0KWAEgC&q=What%20Every%20Engineer%20Should%20Know%20about%20Software%20Engineering.&pg=PA1 | access-date = 21 January 2011 }}</ref> It is the act of using insights to conceive, model and scale a solution to a problem. The first reference to the term is the 1968 [[NATO Software Engineering Conferences|NATO Software Engineering Conference]], and was intended to provoke thought regarding the perceived ''[[software crisis]]'' at the time.<ref>{{cite book| last=Sommerville| first=Ian| title=Software Engineering| edition=7| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PqsWaBkFh1wC| access-date=10 January 2013
| year=2008| publisher=Pearson Education| isbn=978-81-7758-530-8| page=26}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference  | first1 = Naur  | last1 = Peter |author-link1=Peter Naur |first2=Brian|last2=Randell |author-link2=Brian Randell | title = Software Engineering: Report of a conference sponsored by the NATO Science Committee | publisher = Scientific Affairs Division, NATO  | date = 7–11 October 1968  | location = Garmisch, Germany  | url = http://homepages.cs.ncl.ac.uk/brian.randell/NATO/nato1968.PDF  | access-date = 26 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://homepages.cs.ncl.ac.uk/brian.randell/NATO/NATOReports/index.html| title = The 1968/69 NATO Software Engineering Reports| access-date = 11 October 2008 | last = Randell | first = Brian | author-link = Brian Randell|date = 10 August 2001| work = Brian Randell's University Homepage| publisher = The School of the Computer Sciences, Newcastle University| quote = The idea for the first NATO Software Engineering Conference, and in particular that of adopting the then practically unknown term ''software engineering'' as its (deliberately provocative) title, I believe came originally from Professor [[Friedrich L. Bauer|Fritz Bauer]].}}</ref> [[Software development]], a widely used and more generic term, does not necessarily subsume the engineering paradigm. The generally accepted concepts of Software Engineering as an engineering discipline have been specified in the Guide to the [[Software Engineering Body of Knowledge]] (SWEBOK). The SWEBOK has become an internationally accepted standard in ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=33897| id= ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015| access-date = 21 May 2019|title = Software Engineering – Guide to the software engineering body of knowledge (SWEBOK)|publisher = International Organization for Standardization}}</ref>

=== Computer science ===
{{Main|Computer science|Computer scientist}}

Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or Comp Sci) is the [[science|scientific]] and practical approach to [[computation]] and its applications. A [[computer scientist]] specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=computer%20scientist |title=WordNet Search – 3.1 |publisher=Wordnetweb.princeton.edu |access-date=14 May 2012}}</ref>

Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in [[computer system]]s, and purely theoretical areas. Some, such as [[computational complexity theory]], which studies fundamental properties of [[computational problem]]s, are highly abstract, while others, such as [[Computer graphics (computer science)|computer graphics]], emphasize real-world applications. Others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, [[programming language theory]] studies approaches to the description of computations, while the study of [[computer programming]] investigates the use of [[programming language]]s and [[complex systems]]. The field of [[human–computer interaction]] focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Interaction Design Foundation - What is Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)? |url=https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/topics/human-computer-interaction}}</ref>

=== Cybersecurity ===
{{Main|Computer security}}The field of cybersecurity pertains to the protection of computer systems and networks. This includes [[Information privacy|information and data privacy]], preventing [[Denial-of-service attack|disruption]] of IT services and prevention of theft of and damage to hardware, software, and data.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schatz |first1=Daniel |last2=Bashroush |first2=Rabih |last3=Wall |first3=Julie |date=2017 |title=Towards a More Representative Definition of Cyber Security |url=https://commons.erau.edu/jdfsl/vol12/iss2/8/ |journal=The Journal of Digital Forensics, Security and Law |volume=12 |issue=2 |doi=10.15394/jdfsl.2017.1476|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Data science ===
{{Main|Data science}}
Data science is a field that uses scientific and computing tools to extract information and insights from data, driven by the increasing volume and availability of data.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dhar |first=Vasant |date=2013 |title=Data science and prediction |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2500499 |journal=Communications of the ACM |language=en |volume=56 |issue=12 |pages=64–73 |doi=10.1145/2500499 |issn=0001-0782}}</ref> [[Data mining]], [[big data]], statistics, [[machine learning]] and [[deep learning]] are all interwoven with data science.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cao |first=Longbing |date=31 May 2018 |title=Data Science: A Comprehensive Overview |journal=ACM Computing Surveys |language=en |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=1–42 |doi=10.1145/3076253 |s2cid=207595944 |issn=0360-0300|doi-access=free |arxiv=2007.03606 }}</ref>

=== Information systems ===
{{Main|Information system}}

Information systems (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software (see information technology) that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute [[data (computing)|data]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwwmatthes.in.tum.de/wikis/system-cartography/application-landscape|title=Definition of Application Landscape|date=21 January 2009|publisher=Software Engineering for Business Information Systems (sebis)|access-date=14 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305011857/http://wwwmatthes.in.tum.de/wikis/system-cartography/application-landscape|archive-date=5 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Denning |first=Peter |date=July 1999 |title=COMPUTER SCIENCE: THE DISCIPLINE |journal=Encyclopaedia of Computer Science (2000 Edition) |quote=The Domain of Computer Science: Even though computer science addresses both human-made and natural information processes, the main effort in the discipline has been directed toward human-made processes, especially information processing systems and machines}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jessup|first1=Leonard M.|first2=Joseph S.|last2=Valacich|date=2008|title=Information Systems Today|edition=3rd|publisher= Pearson Publishing|pages = –, 416}}</ref> The [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]'s ''Computing Careers'' describes IS as:
{{Blockquote|
"A majority of IS [degree] programs are located in business schools; however, they may have different names such as management information systems, computer information systems, or business information systems. All IS degrees combine business and computing topics, but the emphasis between technical and organizational issues varies among programs. For example, programs differ substantially in the amount of programming required."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://computingcareers.acm.org/index.html@page_id=9.html|title=Computing Degrees & Careers " Information Systems|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|access-date=6 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706021730/http://computingcareers.acm.org/index.html@page_id=9.html|archive-date=6 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
}}

The study of IS bridges business and [[computer science]], using the theoretical foundations of information and [[computation]] to study various business models and related [[algorithm]]ic processes within a computer science discipline.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Timothy |last2=Geist |first2=Robert |last3=Matzko |first3=Sarah |last4=Westall |first4=James |date=March 2004 |title=τ'εχνη: A First Step |journal=Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education |pages=125–129 |isbn= 1-58113-798-2 |quote=In 1999, Clemson University established a (graduate) degree program that bridges the arts and the sciences... All students in the program are required to complete graduate level work in both the arts and computer science}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Khazanchi |first=Deepak |author2=Bjorn Erik Munkvold |date=Summer 2000 |title=Is information system a science? an inquiry into the nature of the information systems discipline |journal=ACM SIGMIS Database |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=24–42 |issn=0095-0033 |doi=10.1145/381823.381834 |s2cid=52847480 |quote=From this we have concluded that IS is a science, i.e., a scientific discipline in contrast to purportedly non-scientific fields|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|quote=Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects |title= Bachelor of Information Sciences (Computer Science) |date=	24 February 2006 |url=http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 |website=Massey University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619125916/http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 |archive-date=19 June 2006 }}</ref>  The field of Computer Information Systems (CIS) studies computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society<ref>{{cite journal |last=Polack |first=Jennifer |date=December 2009 |title=Planning a CIS Education Within a CS Framework |journal=Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=100–106 |issn= 1937-4771}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hayes |first=Helen |author2=Onkar Sharma |date=February 2003 |title=A decade of experience with a common first year program for computer science, information systems and information technology majors |journal=Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=217–227 |issn=1937-4771 |quote=In 1988, a degree program in Computer Information Systems (CIS) was launched with the objective of providing an option for students who were less inclined to become programmers and were more interested in learning to design, develop, and implement Information Systems, and solve business problems using the systems approach}}</ref> while IS emphasizes functionality over design.<ref name="Freeman_Hart_2004">{{cite journal |last1=Freeman |first1=Peter |last2=Hart |first2=David |date=August 2004 |title=A Science of Design for Software-Intensive Systems |doi-access=free |s2cid-access=free |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=47 |issue=8 |pages=19–21 |issn= 0001-0782 |quote=Computer science and engineering needs an intellectually rigorous, analytical, teachable design process to ensure development of systems we all can live with ... Though the other components' connections to the software and their role in the overall design of the system are critical, the core consideration for a software-intensive system is the software itself, and other approaches to systematizing design have yet to solve the "software problem"—which won't be solved until software design is understood scientifically. |doi=10.1145/1012037.1012054|s2cid=14331332 }}</ref>

=== Information technology ===
{{Main|Information technology}}

Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and [[telecommunications equipment]] to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data,<ref name="DOP">
{{citation |contribution=IT |title=A Dictionary of Physics |editor-last=Daintith |editor-first=John |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780199233991 |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t83.e1592 |access-date=1 August 2012}} {{subscription required}}
</ref> often in the context of a business or other enterprise.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://foldoc.org/information+technology|title=Free on-line dictionary of computing (FOLDOC)|access-date=9 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415234011/http://foldoc.org/Information+Technology|archive-date=15 April 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several [[Computer industry|industries]] are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software, [[electronics]], [[semiconductor]]s, internet, [[telecommunications equipment|telecom equipment]], [[e-commerce]], and [[computer services]].<ref name="DMC">
{{citation |last1=Chandler |first1=Daniel |last2=Munday |first2=Rod |contribution=Information technology |title=A Dictionary of Media and Communication |date=January 2011 |edition=first |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-956875-8 |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t326.e1343 |access-date=1 August 2012}} {{subscription required}}
</ref><ref name="Ralston2000">On the later more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments- "In its original application 'information technology' was appropriate to describe the convergence of technologies with application in the broad field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This useful conceptual term has since been converted to what purports to be concrete use, but without the reinforcement of definition...the term IT lacks substance when applied to the name of any function, discipline, or position." {{cite book|author=Anthony Ralston|title=Encyclopedia of computer science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yQ9LAQAAIAAJ|access-date=12 May 2013|year=2000|publisher=Nature Pub. Group|isbn=978-1-56159-248-7}}.</ref>