Editing Dnipro (section)

===The Soviet era===
{{See also|Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic}}

==== War and revolution ====
{{See also|Ukrainian War of Independence}}
[[File:Dnipropetrovs'k S.Nigoyana 47 Bronepotyag (YDS 5850).jpg|thumb|Monument in Dnipro of an [[armored train]] that was built by the workers of [[Dniprovsky Metallurgical Plant|Yekaterinoslav's Bryansk plant]] in 1918, which was employed by the [[Red Army]] in its conquest of Ukraine and the [[Volga]] region.]]
Directly following the Russian [[February Revolution]], in the night of 3 March [[Old Style and New Style dates|O.S]] (16 March [[Gregorian calendar#Difference between Gregorian and Julian calendar dates|N.S]]) to 4 March 1917 a provisional government was organised in Yekaterinoslav headed by the (since 1913) chairman of the provincial land administration {{ill|Konstantin von Hesberg|uk|Гесберг Костянтин Дмитрович}}.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80">{{cite web |author=I. S. Storazhenko|title=The city of Katerinoslav in 1917–1920|url=https://gorod.dp.ua/history/article_ua.php?article=80|website=gorod.dp.ua|date=2001|access-date=26 October 2022|language=Ukrainian}}</ref> Also on 4 March a Council of Workers' Deputies was formed.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/> On 6 March the [[Prime minister of Russia|prime minister]] of the [[Russian Provisional Government]] [[Georgy Lvov]] removed the governor and the vice-governor of [[Yekaterinoslav Governorate]], temporarily handing these powers to Hesberg.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/> On 9 March a Yekaterinoslav Council of Workers and Soldiers deputies was formed.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/>

On 16 May the Council of Workers' Deputies and the Council of Workers and Soldiers merged, to become named the Revolutionary Council in November 1917.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/> All these power structures existed in duality, with Hesberg's provisional government often being at a disadvantage.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/> In 1917 the city saw numerous meetings, rallies, meetings, conferences, congresses and demonstrations by political parties all over the political spectrum.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/> Due to intense political agitation the newly formed factory committees and professional unions by autumn of 1917 mainly supported the [[Bolshevik]]s, significantly strengthening their positions.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/>

In June 1917 a Central Council ([[Tsentralna Rada]]) of Ukrainian parties in [[Kyiv]] declared Yekaterinoslav to be within the territory of the autonomous [[Ukrainian People's Republic]] (UPR).<ref name="dnipropetrovshina-istorichna-dovidka"/> On 13 August 1917 the first democratic Yekaterinoslav 120 seats [[city Duma]] election took place.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/> The Bolsheviks gained 24 seats and the [[Mensheviks]] 16, with pro-Ukrainian parties picking up 6 seats.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/> {{ill|Vasyl Osipov|uk|Осипов Василь Іванович}} was elected Mayor of the city.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/> Osipov was Mayor until the dissolution of the city Duma in May 1918.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/> On 10 November 1917 a parade of Ukrainian troops was held, organized by the Yekaterinoslav Ukrainian Military Council in support of the [[Third Universal of the Ukrainian Central Council]], the proclamation of the Ukrainian People's Republic.<ref name="dnipropetrovshina-istorichna-dovidka"/>

In the November 1917 elections to the [[Russian Constituent Assembly]], the Bolsheviks secured just under 18 per cent of the [[Yekaterinoslav electoral district (Russian Constituent Assembly election, 1917)|vote in the Governorate]], compared to 46 per cent for the [[Ukrainian Socialist-Revolutionary Party|Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionaries]] and their allies.<ref name="Radkey1989-161-163">{{cite book |author=Oliver Henry Radkey |url=https://archive.org/details/russiagoestopoll00radk |title=Russia goes to the polls: the election to the all-Russian Constituent Assembly, 1917 |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-8014-2360-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/russiagoestopoll00radk/page/161 161]–163 |url-access=registration}}</ref> On 22 November 1917 the Revolutionary Council and the city Duma pledged their allegiance to the Tsentralna Rada.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/> The Bolsheviks then left these organisations.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/> During December, the situation in the city worsened with both sides preparing for military action.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/>

On 26 December, the Bolsheviks defied an ultimatum from the Tsentralna Rada and after three days of fighting consolidated their control of the city.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80" /> On 12 February they declared Yekaterinoslav part of a [[Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic|Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic]], but the following month, under the terms of the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]], conceded the territory to the [[German Empire|German]] and [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian]]-allied UPR.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mawdsley |first1=Evan |url=https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan |title=The Russian Civil War |publisher=Pegasus Books |year=2007 |isbn=9781933648156 |page=35 |ref=Mawdsley2007 |author-link=Evan Mawdsley |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="dnipropetrovshina-istorichna-dovidka" /> On 5 April 1918 the [[Imperial German army]] entered the city. Five hundred remaining Bolshevik [[Red Guards (Russia)|Red Guards]] were publicly executed.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80" />
[[File:Military parade in Yekaterinoslav (8610324703).jpg|thumb|250px|A German military parade in Yekaterinoslav in spring 1918.]]
The formal tenure of the UPR was brief: on 29 April 1918 intervention by the [[Central Powers]] saw the UPR replaced by the more pliant [[Ukrainian State]] or [[Ukrainian State|Hetmanate]]. On 18 May 1918 the [[Hetman]] of the Ukrainian State, [[Pavlo Skoropadskyi]], ordered the previously nationalized enterprises returned to their former owners, and with the assistance of Austro-Hungarian troops the new authorities suppressed labor protest.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80"/>

On 23 December 1918, following their defeat by the Western Allies and after four days of insurgency within the city, German and Austro-Hungarian occupation forces withdrew. Four days later, Yekaterinoslav was stormed by the [[Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine|anarchist Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine]] (the [[Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine|''Makhnovshchina'']]), putting to flight forces loyal to the UPR's new [[Directorate of Ukraine|Directorate]]. Over the course of the following year, city was to change hands several more times, contested between the UPR, the Whites ([[Armed Forces of South Russia]]), [[Nykyfor Hryhoriv]]'s peasant insurgents, [[Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine|''Makhnovshchina'']] (who returned twice),<ref name="EprzrAhVqMewKHXLQ">{{Cite book |last1=Skirda |first1=Alexandre |title=Nestor Makhno–Anarchy's Cossack: The Struggle for Free Soviets in the Ukraine 1917–1921 |date=2004 |publisher=AK Press |isbn=1-902593-68-5 |location=Oakland, CA |language=en |translator-last1=Sharkey |translator-first1=Paul |oclc=60602979}} (page 77)</ref> and the Bolsheviks, who reorganised as the Red Army, finally secured the city on 30 December 1919.<ref name="Storazhenkoarticle80" />{{Sfnm|1a1=Avrich|1y=1971|1p=213|2a1=Skirda|2y=2004|2pp=77–78}}{{Sfn|Skirda|2004|p=77}}

The city had been extensively damaged and the population, which had stood at about 268,000 people in 1917, had dropped to under 190,000.<ref name="article85Storazhenko">{{cite web |author=I. S. Storazhenko|title=Dnipropetrovsk in the 1920s and 1930s|url=https://gorod.dp.ua/history/article_ua.php?article=85|website=gorod.dp.ua|date=2001|access-date=2 November 2022|language=Ukrainian}}</ref>

==== Stalin-era industrialisation ====
[[File:Katerinoslav1922.jpg|thumb|The boy on the left murdered an 8-year-old for his 4 pounds of bread in Yekaterinoslav in 1922, during the [[1921–1923 famine in Ukraine|local 1921–1923 famine]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Roman Serb|title=Photos about Ukrainian Hunger 1921–1923|url=http://ukrlife.org/main/evshan/famine.htm|website=Ukrainian life in Sevastopol|access-date=2 November 2022|language=Ukrainian}}</ref>]]
In late May 1920 the food supply to Yekaterinoslav deteriorated, resulting in a wave of strikes.<ref name="article85Storazhenko"/> In June 1920 Soviet authorities quelled one such protest by arresting 200 railway workers, of which 51 were sentenced to immediate execution.<ref name="article85Storazhenko"/>

In 1922 the region was incorporated into the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]], a constituent republic of the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1922 the [[Soviet government]] ordered that "all nationalized enterprises with names related to the Company or the Surname of the old owners must be renamed in memory of [[Russian Revolution|revolutionary events]], in memory of [[Political international|the international]], [[all-Russian]] or local leaders of the [[proletarian revolution]]."<ref name="streetsarticle98Markova"/> In 1922 and 1923 the factories were renamed, as well as dozens of streets, alleys, driveways, squares and parks.<ref name="streetsarticle98Markova"/> In 1923 the city council adopted a resolution to organize a competition to rename the city itself.<ref name="streetsarticle98Markova"/>

In 1924 a Provincial [[Congress of Soviets]] adopted a resolution on renaming the city of Yekaterinoslav to the city of Krasnodniprovsk (and [[Yekaterinoslav Governorate]] to Krasnodniprovsk). Following this, many organizations and institutions began to name Yekaterinoslav Krasnodniprovsk in official documents, only to be reminded in the press that the renaming of settlements could only be decided by the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet]].<ref name="streetsarticle98Markova"/> In 1926 a provisional District [[Congress of Soviets|Congress of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies]] adopted a resolution on renaming Yekaterinoslav to the name Dnipropetrovsk in honour of the [[All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets]]'s chairman of the [[All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee]], [[Grigory Petrovsky]].<ref name="Petrovsky">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8380433.stm Ukraine tears down controversial statue], by Rostyslav Khotin, [[BBC News]] (27 November 2009)<br />[http://unian.net/eng/news/news-349100.html Same article on UNIAN.]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=leloAAAAMAAJ&q=The+city+was+renamed+Dnepropetrovsk+in+1926, The Kravchenko Case: One Man's War Against Stalin] by Gary Kern, Enigma Books, 2007, {{ISBN|978-1-929631-73-5}}, page 191</ref><ref name="streetsarticle98Markova"/>

Petrovsky was present at this congress and he did "accept this honour with great gratitude."<ref name="streetsarticle98Markova"/> The resolution of the congress was approved by a resolution of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet dated 20 July 1926.<ref name="streetsarticle98Markova"/> In the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] dozens of streets, alleys, driveways, squares and parks [[Sovietization|continued to be renamed]] in the city, this continued in the [[1940s]] and in subsequent years.<ref name="streetsarticle98Markova"/>
[[File:Зимовий театр.jpg|thumb|[[Dnipro Academic Drama and Comedy Theatre]] was constructed during the Stalinist period.]]
By 1927 the industry of Dnipropetrovsk was completely rebuilt, and according to some indicators exceeded pre-war levels.<ref name="article85Storazhenko"/> Due to agrarian overpopulation, an influx of unemployed from other settlements, a higher birth rates among other reasons, both employment and unemployment in Dnipropetrovsk rose.<ref name="article85Storazhenko"/> In the late twenties, the authorities had to contend with growing labour unrest. "Do not strangle us, our children are dying of hunger, we have been placed in worse conditions than under the old regime" read one protest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=A |first=Erdogan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LkNtEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA251 |title=Transcripts from the Soviet Archives Volume VII 1927 |publisher=Erdogan A |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-329-49087-1 |pages=251 |language=en}}</ref>

The city figured prominently in [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]'s [[Five-year plans of the Soviet Union|Five-Year Plans]] for industrialisation. In 1932, Dnipropetrovsk's regional metallurgical plants produced 20 per cent of the entire cast iron and 25 per cent of the steel manufactured in the Ukrainian SSR. By the end of the thirties the Dnipropetrovsk region became the most urbanised of Soviet Ukraine with more than 2,273,000 people living in the region and over half a million in the city proper. Dnipropetrovsk became an important cultural and educational centre with ten colleges and a State University.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sergei |first=Zhuk |date=21 January 2022 |title=Communist Party Politics, Rockets and Komsomol Business in Soviet Dnipropetrovsk |url=https://www.e-ir.info/2022/01/21/communist-party-politics-rockets-and-komsomol-business-in-soviet-dnipropetrovsk/ |access-date=2022-04-05 |website=E-International Relations |language=en-US}}</ref>

The surrounding countryside was devastated by the policy of [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|forced collectivisation]] and grain seizures. Peasants had died en masse during the [[Holodomor]] of 1932–33.<ref>Boriak, Hennadii. 2009. ''Sources for the Study of the 'Great Famine' in Ukraine''. Cambridge, MA.</ref> [[Dnipropetrovsk Oblast]] in the years 1932–33 lost 3.5 to 9.8&nbsp;million people,<ref name="Kocherhinarticle1374">{{cite web |author=Ihor Kocherhin|title=Famine 1932–1933 in Dnipropetrovshchyna|url=https://gorod.dp.ua/history/article_ua.php?article=1374|website=gorod.dp.ua|access-date=2 November 2022|language=Ukrainian}}</ref> making it one of the most affected areas of the famine.<ref name="Kocherhinarticle1374"/>

Drawn by employment in the expanding heavy industry, the survivors changed the ethnic composition of the city. The percentage of residents recorded as Ukrainian rose from 36 per cent of the population in 1926 to 54.6 per cent in 1939. The Russian percentage fell from 31.6 to 23.4, and the Jewish share fell from 26.8 to 17.9.<ref name="census1926" /><ref name=":1" /> The city's population during the [[Interwar period]] grew rapidly. 368,000 people lived in Dnipropetrovsk in 1932. In the [[Soviet Census (1939)|1939 Soviet Census]], this number had grown to more than half a million (500,662 people).<ref name="article85Storazhenko"/>

Soviet [[Ukrainization]] and [[Korenizatsiya]] were implemented in Dnipropetrovsk.<ref name="article85Storazhenko"/> The [[Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)|Communist party of Ukraine]] organized special courses in Ukrainian studies.<ref name="article85Storazhenko"/> Soviet authorities greatly increased the number of schools, and by the mid-[[1930s]] had eradicate illiteracy in the city.<ref name="article85Storazhenko"/> New universities were opened.<ref name="article225DniArch">{{cite web |title=Historical and urban development reference Dnipropetrovsk|url=https://gorod.dp.ua/history/article_ua.php?article=225|website=gorod.dp.ua|access-date=2 November 2022|language=Ukrainian}}</ref> At the end of the 1930s Dnipropetrovsk had 10 higher and 19 special educational institutions.<ref name="article225DniArch"/> In the 1930s a significant number of new secondary schools and hospitals were built in the city, and city parks were improved.<ref name="article225DniArch"/>

The [[Great Purge]], following the [[Assassination of Sergei Kirov]], also reached Dnipropetrovsk.<ref name="article85Storazhenko"/> In 1935 the Dnipropetrovsk [[NKVD]] arrested 182 "[[Trotskyists]]".<ref name="article85Storazhenko"/> In 1935, 235 alleged "internal enemies" were executed, including a few university rectors.<ref name="article85Storazhenko"/> In 1936, 526 people were executed.<ref name="article85Storazhenko"/> In 1937, the regional administration of the NKVD killed 16,421 people.<ref name="article85Storazhenko"/>

==== Nazi occupation ====
[[File:Monument of 20000 Jews shot by Germans in 1943 in Dnipropetrovsk -Energetichna street-, Ukraine -10-.jpg|thumb|Monument to 20,000 [[Holocaust by Bullets|Jews shot by Germans]] in 1943 in Dnipropetrovsk. The [[monumental inscription]] (in Russian) does not explicitly identify the victims as Jewish, but speaks of "20,000 civilians."<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 May 2009 |title=Monument of 20000 Jews shot by Germans in 1943 in Dnipropetrovsk [Energetichna street], Ukraine |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Monument_of_20000_Jews_shot_by_Germans_in_1943_in_Dnipropetrovsk_-Energetichna_street-,_Ukraine_-9-.jpg|access-date=18 October 2022|website=[[Wikimedia Commons]]}}</ref>]]
Dnipropetrovsk was under [[Nazi Germany|Nazi German]] occupation from [[Operation Barbarossa|26 August 1941]]<ref name="musicandhistory">{{cite web |url=http://musicandhistory.com/music-and-history-by-the-year/202-1941.html |title=1941 |website=MusicAndHistory |access-date=31 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828144212/http://www.musicandhistory.com/music-and-history-by-the-year/202-1941.html |archive-date=28 August 2012}}</ref> to [[Battle of the Dnieper|25 October 1943]].<ref name="liberation">{{cite web |url=http://www.onwar.com/chrono/1943/oct1943/f25oct43.htm |title=''Onwar.com'', ''Red Army crosses Dniepr River'' |publisher=Onwar.com |access-date=28 November 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126173108/http://onwar.com/chrono/1943/oct1943/f25oct43.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The city was administered as part of the ''[[Reichskommissariat Ukraine]].'' The [[Holocaust]] [[The Holocaust in Ukraine|in Dnipropetrovsk]] reduced the city's remaining Jewish population, estimates for which range from 55,000 to 30,000, to just 702.{{sfn|Hilberg|1985|p=372}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harkavi |first=Zvi |date=1973 |title=Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine (Pages 89–104,107–110) |url=https://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/ekaterinoslav/eka089.html |access-date=2022-04-05 |website=www.jewishgen.org}}</ref> In just two days, 13–14 October 1941, the Germans killed 15,000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Holocaust |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CO%5CHolocaust.htm |access-date=2022-04-05 |website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com}}</ref>

Germany operated three [[German prisoner-of-war camps in World War II|prisoner-of-war camps]] in the city, chiefly Stalag 348 with several subcamps in the region from October 1941 to February 1943, after its relocation from [[Rzeszów]] in German-occupied Poland,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Memorial to the deceased prisoners of war of the Stammlager 348 and patients of the Psychiatric Hospital "Igren" |url=https://terraoblita.com/en/places/50 |access-date=2022-04-05 |website=terraoblita.com |language=en |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927230522/https://terraoblita.com/en/places/50 |url-status=dead }}</ref> at which the occupiers are estimated to have killed upwards of 30,000 Soviet POWs,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Memorial Executed Prisoners of War - Dnipropetrovsk - TracesOfWar.com |url=https://www.tracesofwar.com/sights/67243/Memorial-Executed-Prisoners-of-War.htm |access-date=2022-04-05 |website=www.tracesofwar.com |language=en}}</ref> and briefly also the Stalag 310 and Stalag 387 camps.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Megargee|first1=Geoffrey P.|last2=Overmans|first2=Rüdiger|last3=Vogt|first3=Wolfgang|year=2022|title=The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume IV|publisher=Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|pages=298, 349, 384|isbn=978-0-253-06089-1}}</ref>

In November 1941 Dnipropetrovsk's population was 233,000. In March 1942 this number had fallen to 178,000.<ref name="article225DniArch"/> On 25 October 1943 the population on the right-bank of the city numbered no more than 5,000.<ref name="article225DniArch"/> According to official statistics, in 1945 the population of Dnipropetrovsk had increased to 259,000 people.<ref name="article225DniArch"/>

==== Post-war closed city ====
[[File:Парк ракет. Дніпропетровськ.JPG|thumb|A [[Yuzhmash]] produced [[Tsyklon-3]] rocket, flanked by an [[RT-20P]] and [[R-11 Zemlya]] on display in Dnipro's "Rocket Park".]]
As early as July 1944, the State Committee of Defence in Moscow decided to build a large military machine-building factory in Dnipropetrovsk on the location of the pre-war aircraft plant. In December 1945, thousands of German [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] began construction and built the first sections and shops in the new factory. This was the foundation of the Dnipropetrovsk Automobile Factory. In 1954 the administration of this automobile factory opened a secret design office, designated [[OKB-586]], to construct military [[missile]]s and rocket engines.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last=Miller |first=Christopher |date=28 October 2017 |title=Inside 'Satan's' Lair: The Lock-Tight Ukrainian Rocket Plant At Center Of Tech-Leak Scandal |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-yuzhmash-north-korea-rocket-technology-report/28821134.html |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty |language=en}}</ref>

The high-security project was joined by hundreds of physicists, engineers and machine designers from Moscow and other large Soviet cities. In 1965, the secret Plant No. 586 was transferred to the USSR [[Ministry of General Machine Building|Ministry of General Machine-Building]] which renamed it "the Southern Machine-building Factory" (Yuzhnyi mashino-stroitel'nyi zavod) or in abbreviated Russian, simply [[Yuzhmash]]. Yuzhmash became a significant factor in the arms race of the Cold War ([[Nikita Khrushchev]] boasted in 1960 that it was producing rockets "like sausages" ).<ref name="auto"/>

In 1959, Dnipropetrovsk was officially closed to foreign visitors.<ref name="KlumbyteSharafutdinova2022">{{cite book |author1=Neringa Klumbyte |author2=Gulnaz Sharafutdinova |title=Soviet Society in the Era of Late Socialism, 1964–1985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HxZyQlANcDEC&dq=closed+city+1959+Dnipropetrovsk&pg=PA68 |year=2012 |publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-7584-2 |page=68}}</ref> No foreign citizen, even of a socialist state, was allowed to visit the city or district. Its citizens were held by Communist authorities to a higher standard of ideological purity than the rest of the population, and their freedom of movement was severely restricted. It was not until 1987, during [[perestroika]], that Dnipropetrovsk was opened to international visitors and civil restrictions were lifted.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2014 |title=Life and Death in Five Former Secret Soviet Cities |url=https://balkanist.net/life-and-death-in-the-user-former-secret-cities/ |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=Balkanist |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Portnov |first=Andrii |author-link=Andrii Portnov |date=2022 |title=Dnipro: An Entangled History of a European City |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h9WgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT293 |series=Ukrainian Studies |location=Boston |publisher=Academic Studies Press |isbn=979-88-8719031-0 |doi=10.1515/9798887190327-008 |page=312}}</ref>

The population of Dnipropetrovsk increased from 259,000 people in 1945 to 845,200 in 1965.<ref name="article225DniArch"/>

Notwithstanding the high-security regime, in September and October 1972, workers downed tools in several factories in Dnipropetrovsk demanding higher wages, better food and living conditions, and the right to choose one's job.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Krawchenko |first=Bohdan |date=1993 |title=Strike |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CT%5CStrike.htm |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com}}</ref> Labour militancy returned in the late 1980s, a period in which promises of [[Perestroika|Perestrioka]] and [[Glasnost]] raised popular expectations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Teague |first=Elizabeth |date=1990 |title=Perestroika and the Soviet Worker |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44482502 |journal=Government and Opposition |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=191–211 |doi=10.1111/j.1477-7053.1990.tb00755.x |issn=0017-257X |jstor=44482502 |s2cid=140457991|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In 1990 two thousand inmates rioted in the women's remand prison in a further of sign of growing unrest.<ref name="NYT20Jun1990">[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE3DD173EF933A15755C0A966958260 ''New York Times'', 20 June 1990 ''Evolution in Europe; Soviet Troops Kill an Inmate During Riot in Ukrainian Jail''] This stated that TASS had issued a statement saying that there had been a riot by 2,000 inmates in a prison in Dnipropetrovsk. The riot broke out on Thursday 14 June 1990, and was quelled by Soviet troops on Friday 15 June 1990, killing one prisoner and wounding another.</ref>

==== Dissent and youth rebellion ====
[[File:Gorny 1972.jpg|thumb|Dnipropetrovsk's [[Dnipro Polytechnic|Mining Institute]], 1972.]]
In 1959 17.4% of Dnipropetrovsk students were taught in Ukrainian language schools and 82.6% in Russian language schools. 58% of the city's inhabitants self-identified as Ukrainians.<ref name="2019standardlevel"/> Compared with the other 3 biggest [[cities of Ukraine]] Dnipropetrovsk had a rather large share of education conducted in Ukrainian. In [[Kyiv]] 26.8% of pupils studied in Ukrainian and 73.1% in Russian while 66% of Kyiv residents considered themselves Ukrainian, in [[Kharkiv]] these numbers were 4.9%, 95.1% and 49%. In [[Odesa]] these numbers were 8.1%, 91.9% and 40%.<ref name="2019standardlevel">{{in lang|uk}} [https://uahistory.co/pidruchniki/strykevich-ukraine-history-11-class-2019-standard-level/12.php History of Ukraine. Standard level. Grade 11. Strukevich § 9. The state of culture during the period of de-Stalinization], History | Your library (2009–2022)</ref>{{#tag:ref|At the start of the 2018–2019 academic year, there were 31 Russian-speaking secondary schools left in the whole of [[Dnipropetrovsk Oblast]].<ref name="babelua37188"/> At the time the conversion of these 31 schools to Ukrainian language education was planned to be completed by 2023.<ref name="babelua37188">{{in lang|uk}} [https://babel.ua/news/37188-v-ukrajini-mayzhe-200-rosiyskomovnih-serednih-shkil-do-2023-roku-jih-mayut-perevesti-na-ukrajinsku-movu-vikladannya There are almost 200 Russian-speaking secondary schools in Ukraine. By 2023, they should be translated into the Ukrainian language of instruction], {{ill|Babel.ua|uk|Бабель (інтернет-видання)}} (22 October 2019)</ref>|group=nb}}

As in the overall [[Ukrainian SSR]], Dnipropetrovsk saw an influx of young immigrants from rural Ukraine.<ref name="Krawchenko9780333442845"/> [[Dnipropetrovsk Oblast]] saw the highest inflow of rural youth of all Ukraine.<ref name="Krawchenko9780333442845">{{Cite book|last=Krawchenko|first=Bohdan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TVSwCwAAQBAJ&dq=highest+1960+Dnipropetrovsk&pg=PA186|title=Social Change and National Consciousness in Twentieth-Century Ukraine|date=1985|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-0-333-44284-5|location=London|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-09548-3|page=186}}</ref>

According to [[KGB]] reports, in the 1960s "[[Samizdat]]" and [[Ukrainian diaspora]] publications began to circulate via [[Western Ukraine]] in Dnipropetrovsk. These fed into underground student circles where they promoted interest in the "[[Sixtiers#Ukrainian Sixtiers|Ukrainian Sixtiers]]", in [[Ukrainian history]], especially of [[Ukrainian Cossack]]s, and in the revival of the [[Ukrainian language]]. Occasionally the [[Flag of Ukraine|blue and yellow flag]] of independent Ukraine was unfurled in protest.<ref name="9781440835032Kuzio2">{{Cite book |last1=Kuzio |first1=Taras |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CqXACQAAQBAJ&dq=dnipropetrovsk+nationalism&pg=PA34 |title=Ukraine: Democratization, Corruption, and the New Russian Imperialism: Democratization, Corruption, and the New Russian Imperialism |date=23 June 2015 |isbn=9781440835032 |page=34|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> The authorities responded with repression: arresting and jailing members of underground discussion groups for "nationalistic propaganda".<ref name="22Kamusella">{{Cite book |last1=Kamusella |first1=Tomasz |title=[[Nationalisms Across the Globe]] (volume 1) |date=2009 |isbn=978-3-03911-883-0 |page=237|publisher=Peter Lang }}</ref>

The growing evidence of dissent in the city coincided from the late 1960s with what the KGB referred to as "radio hooliganism". Thousands of high-school and college students had become [[ham radio]] enthusiasts, recording and rebroadcasting [[Pop music in Ukraine|western popular music]]. Annual KGB reports regularly drew a connection between enthusiasm for western pop culture and anti-Soviet behaviour.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Klumbytė |first1=Neringa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HxZyQlANcDEC |title=Soviet Society in the Era of Late Socialism, 1964–1985 |last2=Sharafutdinova |first2=Gulnaz |date=2013 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7391-7583-5 |pages=70 |language=en}}</ref> In the 1980s, by which time the KGB had conceded that their raids against "hippies" had failed suppress the youth rebellion,<ref name="KlumbyteSharafutdinova2022B22">{{cite book |author1=Neringa Klumbyte |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HxZyQlANcDEC&dq=closed+city+1959+Dnipropetrovsk&pg=PA68 |title=Soviet Society in the Era of Late Socialism, 1964–1985 |author2=Gulnaz Sharafutdinova |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7391-7584-2 |page=70/71}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|In one of these cases in 1979, because the [[Jews in Ukraine|local Dnipropetrovsk perpetrator was Jewish]], a KGB report linked [[Ukrainian nationalism]] with Jewish [[Zionism]] "by promoting [[dance music]]".<ref name=Bloom97815013453642/> In this case the (according to the KGB employee "American") band the [[Bee Gees]].<ref name="Bloom97815013453642" />|group=nb}} such behaviour was reportedly found in an admixture of Anglo-American" [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]], [[punk rock]] and [[Banderite|Banderism]]—the veneration of [[Stepan Bandera]], and of other Ukrainian nationalists, who in the Soviet narrative were denounced and discredited as [[Reichskommissariat Ukraine|Nazi]] collaborators.<ref name="Zhuk978103208012322">{{Cite book |last=Zhuk |first=Sergei |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DYdjEAAAQBAJ&dq=dnipropetrovsk+nationalism&pg=PT183 |title=KGB Operations against the USA and Canada in Soviet Ukraine, 1953–1991 |date=2022 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781032080123 |pages=183 |language=en}}</ref>

In an attempt to provide Dnipropetrovsk youth with an ideologically safe alternative, beginning in 1976 the local [[Komsomol]] set up approved [[discoteque|discotheque]]s. Some of the activists involved in this "disco movement" went on in the 1980s to engage in their own illicit tourist and music enterprises, and several later became influential figures in Ukrainian national politics, among them [[Yulia Tymoshenko]], [[Victor Pinchuk]], [[Serhiy Tihipko]], [[Ihor Kolomoyskyi]] and [[Oleksandr Turchynov]].<ref name="Bloom97815013453642">[https://books.google.com/books?id=avjCDwAAQBAJ&dq=dnipropetrovsk+nationalism&pg=PA318 The Bloomsbury Handbook of Popular Music and Social Class], ed. Ian Peddie, New York / London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2020, {{ISBN|9781501345364}}, page 318 + 319</ref>

==== The "Dnipropetrovsk Mafia" ====
Reflecting Dnipropetrovsk's special strategic importance for the entire Soviet Union, party [[Cadre (politics)|cadres]] from the "rocket city" played an outsized role not only in republican leadership in Kyiv, but also in the Union leadership in Moscow.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Klumbytė |first1=Neringa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HxZyQlANcDEC&pg=PA68 |title=Soviet Society in the Era of Late Socialism, 1964–1985 |last2=Sharafutdinova |first2=Gulnaz |date=2013 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7391-7583-5 |pages=68 |language=en}}</ref> During Stalin's [[Great Purge]], [[Leonid Brezhnev]] rose rapidly within the ranks of the local ''[[nomenklatura]],''<ref name=":2">{{cite book | last1=Bacon | first1=Edwin | last2=Sandle | first2=Mark | title=Brezhnev reconsidered | publication-place=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire | date=2002 | isbn=0-333-79463-X | oclc=49894618 | language=br}}</ref> from director of the [[Dnipropetrovsk Metallurgical Institute]] in 1936 to regional (Obkom) Party Secretary in charge of the city's defence industries in 1939.<ref>{{cite book | last=McCauley | first=Martin | title=Who's who in Russia since 1900 | publisher=Routledge | publication-place=London | date=1997 | isbn=0-203-13782-5 | oclc=51666665}}</ref>

Here, he took the first steps toward building a network of supporters which came to be known as the "[[Dnipropetrovsk Mafia]]". They spearheaded the internal party coup that in 1964 saw Brezhnev replace [[Nikita Khrushchev]] as [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] and call a halt to further reform.<ref name=":2" />