Editing Flashbulb memory (section)

== Demographic differences ==

Although people of all ages experience flashbulb memories, different demographics and ages can influence the strength and quality of a flashbulb memory.

=== Age differences ===

In general, younger adults form flashbulb memories more readily than older adults.<ref name="Cohen1993">{{cite journal|last=Cohen|first=G|author2=Conway, M. |author3=Maylor, E. |title=Flashbulb memories in older adults|journal=Psychology and Aging|year=1993|volume=9|issue=3|doi=10.1037/0882-7974.9.3.454|pages=454–63|pmid=7999330}}</ref> One study examined age-related differences in flashbulb memories: participants were tested for memory within 14 days of an important event and then retested for memory of the same event 11 months later. Even 11 months after the event occurred, nearly all the younger adults experienced flashbulb memories, but less than half of the older adults met all the criteria of a flashbulb memory. Younger and older adults also showed different reasons for recalling vivid flashbulb memories. The main predictor for creating flashbulb among younger adults was emotional connectedness to the event, whereas older adults relied more on rehearsal of the event in creating flashbulb memories.<ref name="Cohen1993" /> Being emotionally connected was not enough for older adults to create flashbulbs; they also needed to rehearse the event over the 11 months to remember details. Older adults also had more difficulty remembering the context of the event; the older adults were more likely to forget with whom they spoke and where events took place on a daily basis.<ref name="Cohen1993" />
If older adults are significantly impacted by the dramatic event, however, they could form flashbulb memories that are just as detailed as those that younger adults form. Older adults that were personally impacted by or close to September 11 recalled memories that did not differ in detail from those of younger adults.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kvavilashili|first=L|author2=Mirani, J. |author3=Schlagman, S. |author4=Erskine, J. |author5=Kornbrot, D. |title=Effects of age on phenomenology and consistency of flashbulb memories of September 11 and a staged control event|journal=Psychology and Aging|year=2010|volume=25|pages=391–404|doi=10.1037/a0017532|issue=2|pmid=20545423|hdl=2299/10440|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Conway|first=A.|author2=Skitka, L. |author3=Hemmerich, J. |author4=Kershaw, T. |title=FLashbulb memory for 11 September 2001|journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology|year=2009|volume=23|pages=605–23|doi=10.1002/acp.1497|issue=5}}</ref>
Older adults were found to be more confident in their memories than younger adults, in regards to whom they were with, where they were, and their own personal emotions at the time of hearing the news of 9/11. Older adults remembered a vast majority of events between the ages of 10 and 30, a period known as the "[[reminiscence bump]]". During that period, events occur during a time of finding one's identity and peak brain function. These events tend to be more talked about than events occurring outside this period.  Flashbulb memories from the "reminiscence bump" are better remembered by older adults than are memories are having recently occurred.<ref>{{Cite journal 
| doi = 10.2190/AG.70.4.a 
| last1 = Denver | first1 = J. Y. 
| last2 = Lane | first2 = S. M. 
| last3 = Cherry | first3 = K. E. 
| title = Recent versus remote: Flashbulb memory for 9/11 and self-selected events from the reminiscence bump 
| journal = The International Journal of Aging & Human Development 
| volume = 70 
| issue = 4 
| pages = 275–297 
| year = 2010 
| pmid = 20649160
| s2cid = 22519766 }}</ref>

=== Cultural variations ===

Generally the factors that influence flashbulb memories are considered to be constant across cultures. Tinti et al. (2009) conducted a study on memories of Pope John Paul II's death amongst Polish, Italian, and Swiss Catholics.<ref name="Kulkofsky 2011 233–240">{{cite journal|last=Kulkofsky|first=S|author2=Wang, Q. |author3=Conway, M. |author4=Hou, Y. |author5=Aydin, C. |author6=Johnson, K. |author7=Williams, H. |title=Cultural variation in the correlates of flashbulb memories: An investigation in five countries|journal=Memory|year=2011|volume=19|pages=233–240| doi=10.1080/09658211.2010.551132|issue=3|pmid=21500085|s2cid=14894179}}</ref> The results showed that personal involvement was most important in memory formation, followed by proximity to the event.

Flashbulb memories differ among cultures with the degree to which certain factors influence the vividness of flashbulb memories. For example, Asian cultures tend to de-emphasize individuality; therefore Chinese and Japanese people might not be as affected by the effects of personal involvement on vividness of flashbulb memories. A study conducted by Kulkofsky, Wang, Conway, Hou, Aydin, Johnson, and Williams (2011) investigated the formation of flashbulb memories in 5 countries: China, the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, and Turkey. Overall participants in the United States and the United Kingdom reported more memories in a 5 minutes span than participants from Germany, Turkey, and China. This could simply be due to the fact that different cultures have different memory search strategies. In terms of flashbulb memories, Chinese participants were less affected by all factors related to personal closeness and involvement with the event. There were also cultural variations in effects of emotional intensity and surprise.<ref name="Kulkofsky 2011 233–240"/>

===Gender===
{{Research paper|section|date=May 2023}}

Some studies conducted in this area of research yielded findings indicating that women are able to produce more vivid details of events and recall autobiographical events elicited by Senate hearings than men. One such study had participants fill out questionnaires about flashbulb memories and recollections of autobiographical events pertaining to [[Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination|the Senate hearings]] that confirmed [[Clarence Thomas]] as a Supreme Court Justice (Morse, 1993).<ref>{{Cite journal 
| last1 = Morse | first1 = Claire K. 
| last2 = Woodward | first2 = Elizabeth M. 
| last3 = Zweigenhaft | first3 = R. L. 
| doi = 10.1080/00224545.1993.9712169 
| title = Gender Differences in Flashbulb Memories Elicited by the Clarence Thomas Hearings 
| journal = The Journal of Social Psychology 
| volume = 133 
| issue = 4 
| pages = 453–458 
|date=August 1993
| pmid = 8231123 
}}</ref> The study found that half of the individuals reported vivid memory images associated with the hearings. 64% of women reported images as opposed to 33% men. 77% of women reported having had stimulated recall of an autobiographical event, while only 27% of men indicated having experienced such recall. Women were more likely than men to report additional imagery (24% of women and 6% of men). Women were more likely than men to report vivid image memories and recall of autobiographical events elicited by the hearings, but they did not differ from men in the ratings of these memories. There was also no difference in the average amount of time spent consuming media on the hearing.

A large body of research was conducted into events taking place during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, although it was not specifically researching gender differences. In one study researchers had participants answer questions to establish "consistent flashbulb memory," which consists of details about where the participants were at the time of the attacks, what they were doing, etc. In 2002 it was found that 49% of women and 47% of men fulfilled these requirements. In 2003, this dropped to 46% of women and 44% of men (Conway, 2009).<ref>{{Cite journal 
| last1 = Conway 
| first1 = Andrew R. A. 
| last2 = Skitka 
| first2 = Linda J. 
| last3 = Hemmerich 
| first3 = Joshua A. 
| last4 = Kershaw 
| first4 = Trina C. 
| title = Flashbulb memory for 11 September 2001 
| doi = 10.1002/acp.1497 
| journal = Applied Cognitive Psychology 
| volume = 23 
| issue = 5 
| pages = 605–623 
| date = July 2009 
| url = https://www.princeton.edu/~aconway/pdf/flashbulb_2008.pdf 
| access-date = 15 February 2013 
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120425111626/http://www.princeton.edu/~aconway/pdf/flashbulb_2008.pdf 
| archive-date = 25 April 2012 
| url-status = dead 
}}</ref> Women seemed more likely to have a more consistent memory for the event than men in this study. A longer time since the incident decreases the consistency of the memory. However, a study aimed at finding whether a series of terrorist attacks with common features elicit flashbulb memories found a different pattern of gender effects. Men rated the distinctiveness of their flashbulb-producing event higher than women did. Additionally, men had memories with more detail than women. Women however, reported higher rates of emotional reactivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Edery-Halpern|first1=Galit|last2=Nachson|first2=Israel|date=March 2004|title=Distinctiveness in flashbulb memory: Comparative analysis of five terrorist attacks|journal=Memory|volume=12|issue=2|pages=147–157|doi=10.1080/09658210244000432|pmid=15250180|s2cid=31338900|issn=0965-8211}}</ref>

Biological reasons for gender variances in flashbulb memory may be explained by amygdala asymmetry. The [[amygdala]] is a part of the [[limbic system]], and is linked with memory and emotion. Memory is enhanced by emotion, and studies have shown that people are more likely to remember a negative event than a neutral or positive one. Investigations into the amygdala revealed "people who showed strong amygdala activation in response to a set of positive or negative stimuli (relative to other study participants) also showed superior memory for those stimuli (relative to other study participants)".<ref name="Kensinger2007">{{Cite journal 
| last1 = Kensinger | first1 = Elizabeth A. 
| title = Negative Emotion Enhances Memory Accuracy: Behavioral and Neuroimaging Evidence 
| doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00506.x 
| journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science 
| volume = 16 
| issue = 4 
| pages = 213–218 
|date=August 2007
| s2cid = 16885166 
| url = https://www2.bc.edu/~kensinel/Kensinger_CD07.pdf <!-- alternate URL: https://www2.bc.edu/elizabeth-kensinger/Kensinger_CD07.pdf -->
| url-access = subscription 
}}</ref> This may explain why flashbulb memory typically involves traumatic events. When viewing emotional content, research has shown that men enhance their memory by activating their right amygdala while women activate the left side.<ref name="Kensinger2007" /> Although it is still unclear how lateralization affects memory, there may be a more effective relationship between activation of the left amygdala and memory than activation of right and memory.{{Medical citation needed|date=November 2021}} Generally speaking, studies testing differences between genders on [[episodic memory]] tasks revealed that "women consistently outperform men on tasks that require remembering items that are verbal in nature or can be verbally labeled" (Herlitz, 2008).<ref name="Herlitz 2008 52–56">{{Cite journal 
| last1 = Herlitz 
| first1 = Agneta 
| last2 = Rehnman 
| first2 = Jenny 
| doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00547.x 
| title = Sex Differences in Episodic Memory 
| journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science 
| volume = 17 
| issue = 1 
| pages = 52–56 
| date = February 2008 
| s2cid = 145107751 
| url = http://www.augustana.edu/users/psmccallum/ps100%20Fall%202009/sex%20differences%20in%20episodic%20memory.pdf 
| access-date = 2013-02-18 
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120227205236/http://www.augustana.edu/users/psmccallum/ps100%20Fall%202009/sex%20differences%20in%20episodic%20memory.pdf 
| archive-date = 2012-02-27 
| url-status = dead 
}}</ref> It seems that women also "excel on tasks requiring little or no verbal processing, such as recognition of unfamiliar odors or faces" (Herlitz, 2008).<ref name="Herlitz 2008 52–56" /> Men only seem to excel in memory tasks that require [[visuospatial]] processing. Gender differences are also very apparent in research on autobiographical memory. To sum up these gender differences, most literature on memory indicates that:<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal
 |last1        = Bloise
 |first1       = Susan M.
 |last2        = Johnson
 |first2       = Marcia K.
 |doi          = 10.1080/09658210701204456
 |title        = Memory for emotional and neutral information: Gender and individual differences in emotional sensitivity
 |journal      = Memory
 |volume       = 15
 |issue        = 2
 |pages        = 192–204
 |date         = February 2007
 |pmid         = 17534112
 |s2cid = 352374
 |url          = http://memlab0.eng.yale.edu/PDFs/2007_Bloise_Johnson_Memory.pdf
 |access-date  = 2013-02-18
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20130319071446/http://memlab0.eng.yale.edu/PDFs/2007_Bloise_Johnson_Memory.pdf
 |archive-date = 2013-03-19
 |url-status   = dead
}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Women use a greater quantity and variety of emotion words than men when describing their past experiences ... Women include not only a greater number of references to their own emotional states but also a greater number of references to the emotional states of others. In addition, when asked to recall emotional life experiences, women recall more memories of both positive and negative personal experiences than men.|author=Bloise & Johnson, 2007}}

Overall women seem to have better memory performance than men in both emotional and non-emotional events.<ref name=":0" />

There are many problems with assessing gender differences found in the research into this topic. The clearest is that it is heavily reliant on self-reporting of events. Inaccuracy of findings could result from biased questions or participants misremembering. There is no way to completely verify the accuracy of accounts given by the subjects in a study. Additionally, there are many indications that [[eye-witness]] memory can often be fallible. Emotion does not seem to improve memory performance in a situation that involves weapons. Eyewitnesses remember fewer details about perpetrators if a weapon is involved in an event (Pickel, 2009).<ref>{{Cite journal 
| last1 = Pickel | first1 = Kerri L. 
| title = The weapon focus effect on memory for female versus male perpetrators 
| doi = 10.1080/09658210903029412 
| journal = Memory 
| volume = 17 
| issue = 6 
| pages = 664–678 
|date=August 2009
| pmid = 19536689 
| s2cid = 10272699 
}}</ref> Accuracy in these situations is compromised by a phenomenon known as the [[weapon focus|weapon focus effect]]. Further complicating matters is the time frame in which people are surveyed in relation to the event as many studies survey people well after the events. Thus, there is a validity issue with much of the research into flashbulb memory in general, as well as any apparent gender differences.