Editing Gender identity (section)

==History and definitions==

===Definitions===
The terms ''gender identity'' and ''core gender identity'' were first used with their current meaning—one's personal experience of one's own gender<ref name="MorrowMessinger"/><ref name="Boles_2013" />—sometime in the 1960s.<ref name="GID">"The term 'gender identity' was used in a press release, November 21, 1966, to announce the new clinic for transsexuals at The Johns Hopkins Hospital. It was disseminated in the media worldwide, and soon entered the vernacular. ... gender identity is your own sense or conviction of maleness or femaleness." {{cite journal | vauthors = Money J | title = The concept of gender identity disorder in childhood and adolescence after 39 years | journal = Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | pages = 163–177 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7996589 | doi = 10.1080/00926239408403428 | author-link = John Money }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Unge RK |title=Handbook of the psychology of women and gender |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=978-0-471-65357-8 | page = 102 | quote = ''Gender identity'' was introduced into the professional lexicon by Hooker and Stoller almost simultaneously in the early 1960s (see Money, 1985). For example, Stoller (1964) used the slightly different term ''core gender identity''... }}</ref> To this day they are usually used in that sense,<ref name="Carlson"/> though a few scholars additionally use the term to refer to the [[sexual orientation]] and [[sexual identity]] categories ''[[gay]]'', ''[[lesbian]]'' and ''[[Bisexuality|bisexual]]''.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Brym RJ, Lie J, Roberts LW, Rytina S |title=Sociology: Your Compass for a New World |date=2012 |publisher=Nelson Education |location=Toronto |isbn=978-0-17-650386-4 |edition=4th Canadian}}</ref> Gender expression is distinct from gender identity in that gender expression is how one chooses to outwardly express their gender through one's "name, pronouns, clothing, hair style, behavior, voice or body features."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://myhealth.alberta.ca/Alberta/Pages/gender-ID-expression-LGBTQ.aspx | title=Gender, gender identity, and gender expression | access-date=4 December 2022 | archive-date=13 April 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413152257/https://myhealth.alberta.ca/Alberta/Pages/gender-ID-expression-LGBTQ.aspx | url-status=live }}</ref> It is thus distinct from gender identity in that it is the external expression of gender but may not necessarily portray a person's gender identity and may vary "according to racial/ethnic background, socio-economic status and place of residence."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=White Hughto |first1=Jaclyn M. |last2=Reisner |first2=Sari L. |last3=Pachankis |first3=John E. |title=Transgender Stigma and Health: A Critical Review of Stigma Determinants, Mechanisms, and Interventions |journal=Social Science & Medicine |date=December 2015 |volume=147 |pages=222–231 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.010 |pmid=26599625 |pmc=4689648 }}</ref>

===Early medical literature===
In late-19th-century medical literature, women who chose not to conform to their expected gender roles were called "inverts", and they were portrayed as having an interest in knowledge and learning, and a "dislike and sometimes incapacity for needlework".<ref name="Padawer">{{cite news |last1=Padawer |first1=Ruth |title=What's So Bad About a Boy Who Wants to Wear a Dress? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/12/magazine/whats-so-bad-about-a-boy-who-wants-to-wear-a-dress.html |work=The New York Times |date=8 August 2012 |access-date=27 February 2017 |archive-date=25 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025213240/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/12/magazine/whats-so-bad-about-a-boy-who-wants-to-wear-a-dress.html |url-status=live }}</ref> During the mid-1900s, doctors pushed for corrective therapy on such women and children, which meant that gender behaviors that were not part of the norm would be punished and changed.<ref name="Khan2016">{{cite web |last1=Khan |first1=Farah Naz |title=A History of Transgender Health Care |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/a-history-of-transgender-health-care/ |work=[[Scientific American]] |date=16 November 2016 |access-date=16 December 2023 |archive-date=8 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208003936/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/a-history-of-transgender-health-care/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Standards of Care">{{cite journal |title=Liberating sex, knowing desire: ''scientia sexualis'' and epistemic turning points in the history of sexuality |last=Chiang |first=Howard H. |journal=[[History of the Human Sciences]] |volume=25 |issue=5| pages=42–69 |doi=10.1177/0952695110378947 |date=18 November 2010|pmid=21322413 |s2cid=26766140 }}</ref> The aim of this therapy was to push children back to their "correct" gender roles and thereby limit the number of children who became transgender.<ref name="Padawer" />

===Freud and Jung's views===
In 1905, [[Sigmund Freud]] presented his theory of [[psychosexual development]] in ''[[Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality]]'', giving evidence that in the pregenital phase children do not distinguish between sexes, but assume both parents have the same genitalia and reproductive powers. On this basis, he argued that bisexuality was the original sexual orientation and that heterosexuality was resultant of repression during the [[phallic stage]], at which point gender identity became ascertainable.<ref name="Ruse1988">{{citation |last=Ruse |first=Michael |title=Homosexuality: A Philosophical Inquiry |year=1988 |publisher=Basil Blackwell |location=New York |isbn=0-631-15275-X}}</ref> According to Freud, during this stage, children developed an [[Oedipus complex]] where they had sexual fantasies for the parent ascribed the opposite gender and hatred for the parent ascribed the same gender, and this hatred transformed into (unconscious) transference and (conscious) identification with the hated parent who both exemplified a model to appease sexual impulses and threatened to castrate the child's power to appease sexual impulses.<ref name=myers/> In 1913, [[Carl Jung]] proposed the [[Electra complex]] as he both believed that bisexuality did not lie at the origin of psychic life, and that Freud did not give adequate description to the female child (Freud rejected this suggestion).<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Freud S |year=1931|chapter=Female Sexuality|title=The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|volume=21|page=229}}</ref>

===1950s and 1960s===
During the 1950s and '60s, psychologists began studying gender development in young children, partially in an effort to understand the origins of [[homosexuality]] (which was viewed as a [[mental disorder]] at the time). In 1958, the Gender Identity Research Project was established at the [[UCLA Medical Center]] for the study of [[intersex]] and transsexual individuals. Psychoanalyst [[Robert Stoller]] generalized many of the findings of the project in his book ''Sex and Gender: On the Development of Masculinity and Femininity'' (1968). He is also credited with introducing the term ''gender identity'' to the International Psychoanalytic Congress in [[Stockholm, Sweden]], in 1963.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Parker | first1 = Richard Guy | last2 = Aggleton | first2 = Peter | title = Culture, Society and Sexuality: A Reader | publisher = [[Psychology Press]] | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MlZbFt6421gC&pg=PA80 | page = 80 | date = 1999 | isbn = 9781857288117 | access-date = 18 December 2023 | archive-date = 22 February 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240222035325/https://books.google.com/books?id=MlZbFt6421gC&pg=PA80#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status = live }}</ref> Behavioral psychologist [[John Money]] was also instrumental in the development of early theories of gender identity. His work at Johns Hopkins University's [[History of transgender care at Johns Hopkins Hospital|Gender Identity Clinic]] (established in 1965) popularized an [[interactionist]] theory of gender identity, suggesting that, up to a certain age, gender identity is relatively fluid and subject to constant negotiation. His book ''Man and Woman, Boy and Girl'' (1972) became widely used as a [[college textbook]], although many of Money's ideas have since been challenged.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Haraway D |title=Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature |publisher=[[Free Association Books]]|year=1991|isbn=978-0-415-90386-8|location=London|page=133|author-link=Donna Haraway}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Karkazis K | title = [[Fixing Sex|Fixing Sex: Intersex, Medical Authority, and Lived Experience]] | publisher = Duke University Press | date = November 2008 | isbn = 978-0-8223-4318-9 }}</ref>

===Butler's views===
In the late 1980s, gender studies scholar [[Judith Butler]] began lecturing regularly on the topic of gender identity, and in 1990, they published ''[[Gender Trouble|Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity]]'', introducing the concept of [[gender performativity]].<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Butler J |title=Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity|publisher=Routledge|year=1990|isbn=978-0415389556|location=London|pages=front/backmatter|author-link=Judith Butler}}</ref> Butler argues that the traditional view of gender is limiting in that it adheres to the dominant societal constraints that label gender as binary. In scrutinizing gender, Butler introduces a nuanced perception in which they unite the concepts of performativity and gender.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Feminist Perspectives on Sex and Gender |encyclopedia=The [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |year=2023 |last=Mikkola |first=Mari |publisher=[[Metaphysics Research Lab (Stanford University)]] |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-gender/ |edition=Fall 2023 |access-date=17 December 2023 |archive-date=1 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601002408/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-gender/ |url-status=live }}</ref>