Editing Human brain (section)

==Function==
[[File:Blausen 0103 Brain Sensory&Motor.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Motor and sensory regions of the brain]]

===Motor control===
The frontal lobe is involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language. It contains the [[motor cortex]], which is involved in planning and coordinating movement; the [[prefrontal cortex]], which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning; and [[Broca's area]], which is essential for language production.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-psychology/chapter/outcome-parts-of-the-brain/|title=Parts of the Brain {{!}} Introduction to Psychology|website=courses.lumenlearning.com|access-date=2019-09-20}}</ref> The [[motor system]] of the brain is responsible for the [[motor control|generation and control]] of movement.{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|p=685}} Generated movements pass from the brain through nerves to [[motor neuron]]s in the body, which control the action of [[muscle]]s. The [[corticospinal tract]] carries movements from the brain, through the [[spinal cord]], to the torso and limbs.{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|p=687}} The [[cranial nerves]] carry movements related to the eyes, mouth and face.

Gross movement – such as [[Animal locomotion|locomotion]] and the movement of arms and legs – is generated in the [[motor cortex]], divided into three parts: the [[primary motor cortex]], found in the [[precentral gyrus]] and has sections dedicated to the movement of different body parts. These movements are supported and regulated by two other areas, lying [[anterior]] to the primary motor cortex: the [[premotor area]] and the [[supplementary motor area]].{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|p=686}} The hands and mouth have a much larger area dedicated to them than other body parts, allowing finer movement; this has been visualised in a [[Cortical homunculus#Types|motor homunculus]].{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|p=686}} Impulses generated from the motor cortex travel along the [[corticospinal tract]] along the front of the medulla and cross over ([[decussate]]) at the [[medullary pyramids (brainstem)|medullary pyramids]]. These then travel down the [[spinal cord]], with most connecting to [[spinal interneuron|interneuron]]s, in turn connecting to [[lower motor neuron]]s within the [[grey matter]] that then transmit the impulse to move to muscles themselves.{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|p=687}} The cerebellum and [[basal ganglia]], play a role in fine, complex and coordinated muscle movements.{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=698, 708}} Connections between the cortex and the basal ganglia control muscle tone, posture and movement initiation, and are referred to as the [[extrapyramidal system]].{{sfn|Davidson's|2010|p=1139}}

===Sensory===
[[File:1604 Types of Cortical Areas-02.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Cortical areas]]
[[File:Gray722.png|thumb|upright=0.9|Routing of neural signals from the two eyes to the brain]]
The [[sensory nervous system]] is involved with the reception and processing of [[sense|sensory information]]. This information is received through the cranial nerves, through tracts in the spinal cord, and directly at centres of the brain exposed to the blood.<ref name="Hellier">{{cite book |author=Hellier, J. |title=The Brain, the Nervous System, and Their Diseases [3 volumes] |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2014 |pages=300–303 |isbn=978-1-61069-338-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SDi2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA300}}</ref> The brain also receives and interprets information from the [[special sense]]s of [[visual perception|vision]], [[Olfaction|smell]], [[hearing]], and [[taste]]. [[Sensory-motor coupling|Mixed motor and sensory signals]] are also integrated.<ref name="Hellier"/>

From the skin, the brain receives information about [[touch|fine touch]], [[pressure]], [[pain]], [[vibration]] and [[temperature]]. From the joints, the brain receives information about [[proprioception|joint position]].{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=571–576}} The [[sensory cortex]] is found just near the motor cortex, and, like the motor cortex, has areas related to sensation from different body parts. Sensation collected by a [[sensory receptor]] on the skin is changed to a nerve signal, that is passed up a series of neurons through tracts in the spinal cord. The [[dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway]] contains information about fine touch, vibration and position of joints. The pathway fibres travel up the back part of the spinal cord to the back part of the medulla, where they connect with [[dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway#Second-order neurons|second-order neurons]] that immediately [[Decussation|send fibres across the midline]]. These fibres then travel upwards into the [[ventrobasal complex]] in the thalamus where they connect with [[dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway#Third-order neurons|third-order neurons]] which send fibres up to the sensory cortex.{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=571–576}} The [[spinothalamic tract]] carries information about pain, temperature, and gross touch. The pathway fibres travel up the spinal cord and connect with second-order neurons in the [[reticular formation]] of the brainstem for pain and temperature, and also terminate at the ventrobasal complex of the thalamus for gross touch.{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=573–574}}

[[Visual perception|Vision]] is generated by light that hits the [[retina]] of the eye. [[Photoreceptor cell|Photoreceptors]] in the retina [[visual phototransduction|transduce]] the sensory stimulus of [[light]] into an electrical [[action potential|nerve signal]] that is sent to the [[visual cortex]] in the occipital lobe. The arrangements of the eyes' optics cause light from the left [[visual field]] to be received by the rightmost portion of each retina, and vice versa. This arrangement ultimately means that a portion of each retina is processed by each hemisphere of the cortex, such that both the right and left visual cortex process information from both eyes. Visual signals leave the retinas through the [[optic nerves]]. Optic nerve fibres from the retinas' nasal halves [[Optic chiasm|cross to the opposite sides]] joining the fibres from the temporal halves of the opposite retinas, which do not cross, forming the [[optic tracts]]. The optic tract fibres reach the brain at the [[lateral geniculate nucleus]], and travel through the [[optic radiation]] to reach the visual cortex.{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=623-631}}

[[Hearing]] and [[Equilibrioception|balance]] are both generated in the [[inner ear]]. Sound results in vibrations of the [[ossicles]] which continue finally to [[Hair cell|the hearing organ]], and change in balance results in movement of [[Vestibular system|liquids within the inner ear]]. This creates a nerve signal that passes through the [[vestibulocochlear nerve]]. From here, it passes through to the [[cochlear nuclei]], the [[superior olivary nucleus]], the [[medial geniculate nucleus]], and finally the [[auditory radiation]] to the [[auditory cortex]].{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=739–740}}

The sense of [[Olfaction|smell]] is generated by [[Olfactory receptor neuron|receptor cells]] in the [[olfactory epithelium|epithelium]] of the [[olfactory mucosa]] in the [[nasal cavity]]. This information passes via the [[olfactory nerve]] which goes into the skull through [[cribiform plate|a relatively permeable part]]. This nerve transmits to the neural circuitry of the [[olfactory bulb]] from where information is passed to the [[olfactory system|olfactory cortex]].{{sfn|Pocock|2006|pp=138–139}}{{sfn|Squire|2013|pp=525–526}}
[[Taste]] is generated from [[Taste receptor|receptors on the tongue]] and passed along the [[Facial nerve|facial]] and [[glossopharyngeal nerve]]s into the [[solitary nucleus]] in the brainstem. Some taste information is also passed from the pharynx into this area via the [[vagus nerve]]. Information is then passed from here through the thalamus into the [[gustatory cortex]].{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=647–648}}

===Regulation===
[[Autonomic nervous system|Autonomic]] functions of the brain include the regulation, or [[Neuroscience of rhythm|rhythmic control]] of the [[heart rate]] and [[respiratory rate|rate of breathing]], and maintaining [[homeostasis]].

[[Blood pressure]] and [[heart rate]] are influenced by the [[vasomotor center|vasomotor centre]] of the medulla, which causes arteries and veins to be somewhat constricted at rest. It does this by influencing the [[sympathetic nervous system|sympathetic]] and [[parasympathetic nervous system]]s via the [[vagus nerve]].{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=202–203}} Information about blood pressure is generated by [[baroreceptor]]s in [[aortic body|aortic bodies]] in the [[aortic arch]], and passed to the brain along the [[general visceral afferent fibers|afferent fibres]] of the vagus nerve. Information about the pressure changes in the [[carotid sinus]] comes from [[carotid body|carotid bodies]] located near the [[common carotid artery|carotid artery]] and this is passed via a [[Hering's nerve|nerve]] joining with the [[glossopharyngeal nerve]]. This information travels up to the [[solitary nucleus]] in the medulla. Signals from here influence the vasomotor centre to adjust vein and artery constriction accordingly.{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=205–208}}

The brain controls the [[respiratory rate|rate of breathing]], mainly by [[respiratory center|respiratory centre]]s in the medulla and pons.{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=505–509}} The respiratory centres control [[respiration (physiology)|respiration]], by generating motor signals that are passed down the spinal cord, along the [[phrenic nerve]] to the [[Thoracic diaphragm|diaphragm]] and other [[muscles of respiration]]. This is a [[spinal nerve|mixed nerve]] that carries sensory information back to the centres. There are four respiratory centres, three with a more clearly defined function, and an apneustic centre with a less clear function. In the medulla a dorsal respiratory group causes the desire to [[inhalation|breathe in]] and receives sensory information directly from the body. Also in the medulla, the ventral respiratory group influences [[exhalation|breathing out]] during exertion. In the pons the [[pneumotaxic center|pneumotaxic centre]] influences the duration of each breath,{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=505–509}} and the [[apneustic center|apneustic centre]] seems to have an influence on inhalation. The respiratory centres directly senses blood [[carbon dioxide]] and [[pH]]. Information about blood [[oxygen]], [[carbon dioxide]] and pH levels are also sensed on the walls of arteries in the [[peripheral chemoreceptor]]s of the aortic and carotid bodies. This information is passed via the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves to the respiratory centres. High carbon dioxide, an acidic pH, or low oxygen stimulate the respiratory centres.{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=505–509}} The desire to breathe in is also affected by [[pulmonary stretch receptor]]s in the lungs which, when activated, prevent the lungs from overinflating by transmitting information to the respiratory centres via the vagus nerve.{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=505–509}}

The [[hypothalamus]] in the [[diencephalon]], is involved in regulating many functions of the body. Functions include [[neuroendocrine]] regulation, regulation of the [[circadian rhythm]], control of the [[autonomic nervous system]], and the regulation of fluid, and food intake. The circadian rhythm is controlled by two main cell groups in the hypothalamus. The anterior hypothalamus includes the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] and the [[ventrolateral preoptic nucleus]] which through gene expression cycles, generates a roughly 24 hour [[circadian clock]]. In the [[circadian clock|circadian day]] an [[ultradian rhythm]] takes control of the sleeping pattern. [[Sleep]] is an essential requirement for the body and brain and allows the closing down and resting of the body's systems. There are also findings that suggest that the daily build-up of toxins in the brain are removed during sleep.<ref name="sleep">{{cite web |title=Brain Basics: Understanding Sleep {{!}} National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke |url=https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Understanding-Sleep |website=www.ninds.nih.gov |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222044016/https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Understanding-Sleep |archive-date=December 22, 2017  }}</ref> Whilst awake the brain consumes a fifth of the body's total energy needs. [[Neuroscience of sleep|Sleep]] necessarily reduces this use and gives time for the restoration of energy-giving [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. The effects of [[sleep deprivation]] show the absolute need for sleep.{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|p=723}}

The [[lateral hypothalamus]] contains [[orexin]]ergic neurons that control [[appetite]] and [[arousal]] through their projections to the [[ascending reticular activating system]].<ref name=Davis>{{ cite book | chapter=24. Orexigenic Hypothalamic Peptides Behavior and Feeding – 24.5 Orexin | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KuAEPOPbW6MC&pg=PA361 | pages=361–362 |last1=Davis |first1=J.F. |last2=Choi |first2=D.L. |last3=Benoit |first3=S.C. | title=Handbook of Behavior, Food and Nutrition |editor1-last=Preedy |editor1-first= V.R. |editor2-last=Watson |editor2-first=R.R. |editor3-last=Martin |editor3-first=C.R. | publisher=Springer | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-387-92271-3 }}</ref>{{sfn|Squire|2013|p=800}} The hypothalamus controls the [[pituitary gland]] through the release of peptides such as [[oxytocin]], and [[vasopressin]], as well as [[dopamine]] into the [[median eminence]]. Through the autonomic projections, the hypothalamus is involved in regulating functions such as blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, sweating, and other homeostatic mechanisms.{{sfn|Squire|2013|p=803}} The hypothalamus also plays a role in thermal regulation, and when stimulated by the immune system, is capable of generating a [[fever]]. The hypothalamus is influenced by the kidneys: when blood pressure falls, the [[renin]] released by the kidneys stimulates a need to drink. The hypothalamus also regulates food intake through autonomic signals, and hormone release by the digestive system.{{sfn|Squire|2013|p=805}}

===Language===
[[File:1605_Brocas_and_Wernickes_Areas-02.jpg|thumb|[[Broca's area]] and [[Wernicke's area]] are linked by the [[arcuate fasciculus]].]]
{{Main |Language processing in the brain}}
{{See also|Two-streams hypothesis#Two auditory systems}}

While language functions were traditionally thought to be localised to [[Wernicke's area]] and [[Broca's area]],{{sfn|Guyton & Hall|2011|pp=720-2}} it is now mostly accepted that a wider network of [[Cortex (anatomy)|cortical]] regions contributes to language functions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Poeppel |first1=D. |last2=Emmorey |first2=K. |last3=Hickok |first3=G. |last4=Pylkkänen |first4=L.|author1-link=David Poeppel|author2-link=Karen Emmorey|author4-link=Liina Pylkkänen |title=Towards a new neurobiology of language |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |date=October 10, 2012 |volume=32 |issue=41 |pages=14125–14131 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3244-12.2012 |pmid=23055482 |pmc=3495005}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hickok |first1=G |title=The functional neuroanatomy of language |journal=Physics of Life Reviews |date=September 2009 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=121–143 |doi=10.1016/j.plrev.2009.06.001|pmid=20161054 |pmc=2747108 |bibcode=2009PhLRv...6..121H }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Fedorenko | first1=E. | last2=Kanwisher | first2=N. | journal=Language and Linguistics Compass | volume=3 | issue=4 | title=Neuroimaging of language: why hasn't a clearer picture emerged? | pages=839–865 | doi=10.1111/j.1749-818x.2009.00143.x | year=2009 | s2cid=2833893 | df=mdy-all | doi-access=free }}</ref>

The study on how language is represented, processed, and [[language acquisition|acquired]] by the brain is called [[neurolinguistics]], which is a large multidisciplinary field drawing from [[cognitive neuroscience]], [[cognitive linguistics]], and [[psycholinguistics]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Language intervention strategies in aphasia and related neurogenic communication disorders |last=Damasio |first=H. |date=2001 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=978-0-7817-2133-2 |editor-last=Chapey |editor-first=Roberta |edition=4th |pages=18–36 |chapter=Neural basis of language disorders |oclc=45952164}}</ref>

===Lateralisation===
{{Main |Lateralization of brain function}}
{{Further |Functional specialization (brain)}}
{{See also|Contralateral brain}}
The cerebrum has a [[contralateral brain|contralateral organisation]] with each hemisphere of the brain interacting primarily with one half of the body: the left side of the brain interacts with the right side of the body, and vice versa. This is theorized to be caused by a developmental [[Axial Twist theory|axial twist]].<ref name="Lussanet2012">{{cite journal | first1=M.H.E. | last1=de Lussanet | first2=J.W.M. | last2=Osse | year=2012 | title=An ancestral axial twist explains the contralateral forebain and the optic chiasm in vertebrates | journal=Animal Biology | volume=62 | issue=2 | pages=193–216 | doi=10.1163/157075611X617102 | arxiv=1003.1872 | s2cid=7399128}}</ref> Motor connections from the brain to the spinal cord, and sensory connections from the spinal cord to the brain, both [[decussation|cross sides]] in the brainstem. Visual input follows a more complex rule: the optic nerves from the two eyes come together at a point called the [[optic chiasm]], and half of the fibres from each nerve split off to join the other.<ref>{{cite book |author=Hellier, J. |title=The Brain, the Nervous System, and Their Diseases [3 volumes] |isbn=978-1-61069-338-7 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2014 |page=1135 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SDi2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1135}}</ref> The result is that connections from the left half of the retina, in both eyes, go to the left side of the brain, whereas connections from the right half of the retina go to the right side of the brain.<ref name="Kolb 2">{{cite book |last1=Kolb |first1=B. |last2=Whishaw |first2=I.Q. |title=Introduction to Brain and Behavior |isbn=978-1-4641-3960-4 |publisher=[[Macmillan Higher Education]] |year=2013 |page=296 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teUkAAAAQBAJ}}</ref> Because each half of the retina receives light coming from the opposite half of the visual field, the functional consequence is that visual input from the left side of the world goes to the right side of the brain, and vice versa.<ref name="Berntson">{{cite book |last1=Berntson |first1=G. |last2=Cacioppo |first2=J. |title=Handbook of Neuroscience for the Behavioral Sciences, Volume 1 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |year=2009 |page=145 |isbn=978-0-470-08355-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwdJhh8bOvwC&pg=PA145}}</ref> Thus, the right side of the brain receives somatosensory input from the left side of the body, and visual input from the left side of the visual field.<ref name="Sherwood">{{cite book |last1=Sherwood |first1=L. |title=Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems |isbn=978-1-133-70853-7 |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |year=2012 |page=181 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZkJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT181}}</ref><ref name="Kalat">{{cite book |author=Kalat, J |title=Biological Psychology |isbn=978-1-305-46529-9 |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |year=2015 |page=425 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EzZBBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA425}}</ref>

The left and right sides of the brain appear symmetrical, but they function asymmetrically.<ref name="Cowin">{{cite book |last1=Cowin |first1=S.C. |last2=Doty |first2=S.B. |title=Tissue Mechanics |isbn=978-0-387-49985-7 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |year=2007 |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8BJhRkat--YC&pg=PA4}}</ref> For example, the counterpart of the left-hemisphere motor area controlling the right hand is the right-hemisphere area controlling the left hand. There are, however, several important exceptions, involving language and spatial cognition. The left frontal lobe is dominant for language. If a key language area in the left hemisphere is damaged, it can leave the victim unable to speak or understand,<ref name="Cowin"/> whereas equivalent damage to the right hemisphere would cause only minor impairment to language skills.

A substantial part of current understanding of the interactions between the two hemispheres has come from the study of "[[split-brain]] patients"—people who underwent surgical transection of the corpus callosum in an attempt to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures.<ref name="Myers">{{cite book |last1=Morris |first1=C.G. |last2=Maisto |first2=A.A. |title=Understanding Psychology |isbn=978-0-205-76906-3 |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |year=2011 |page=56 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hoVWAAAAYAAJ}}</ref> These patients do not show unusual behaviour that is immediately obvious, but in some cases can behave almost like two different people in the same body, with the right hand taking an action and then the left hand undoing it.<ref name="Myers"/><ref name="Kolb 3">{{cite book |last1=Kolb |first1=B. |last2=Whishaw |first2=I.Q. |title=Introduction to Brain and Behavior (Loose-Leaf) |isbn=978-1-4641-3960-4 |publisher=[[Macmillan Higher Education]] |year=2013 |pages=524–549 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teUkAAAAQBAJ}}</ref> These patients, when briefly shown a picture on the right side of the point of visual fixation, are able to describe it verbally, but when the picture is shown on the left, are unable to describe it, but may be able to give an indication with the left hand of the nature of the object shown.<ref name="Kolb 3"/><ref name="Schacter">{{cite book |last1=Schacter |first1=D.L. |last2=Gilbert |first2=D.T. |last3=Wegner |first3=D.M. |title=Introducing Psychology |isbn=978-1-4292-1821-4 |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] |year=2009 |page=80 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gt8lpZylVmkC&pg=PA80}}</ref>

===Emotion===
{{Main|Emotion}}
{{Further |Affective neuroscience}}
[[Emotion]]s are generally defined as two-step multicomponent processes involving [[Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)|elicitation]], followed by psychological feelings, appraisal, expression, autonomic responses, and action tendencies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sander |first=David |editor1-last=Armony |editor1-first=J. |editor2-first=Patrik |editor2-last=Vuilleumier |title=The Cambridge handbook of human affective neuroscience |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-17155-7 |page=16 }}</ref> Attempts to localise basic emotions to certain brain regions have been controversial; some research found no evidence for specific locations corresponding to emotions, but instead found circuitry involved in general emotional processes. The [[amygdala]], [[orbitofrontal cortex]], mid and anterior [[insular cortex]] and lateral [[prefrontal cortex]], appeared to be involved in generating the emotions, while weaker evidence was found for the [[ventral tegmental area]], [[ventral pallidum]] and [[nucleus accumbens]] in [[incentive salience]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindquist |first1=KA. |last2=Wager |first2=TD. |last3=Kober |first3=H |last4=Bliss-Moreau |first4=E |last5=Barrett |first5=LF |title=The brain basis of emotion: A meta-analytic review |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |date=May 23, 2012 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=121–143 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X11000446|pmid=22617651 |pmc=4329228 }}</ref> Others, however, have found evidence of activation of specific regions, such as the [[basal ganglia]] in happiness, the [[corpus callosum|subcallosal]] [[cingulate cortex]] in sadness, and [[amygdala]] in fear.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Phan |first1=KL |last2=Wager |first2=Tor |last3=Taylor |first3=SF. |last4=Liberzon |first4=l |title=Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion: A Meta-Analysis of Emotion Activation Studies in PET and fMRI |journal=NeuroImage |date=June 1, 2002 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=331–348 |doi=10.1006/nimg.2002.1087 |pmid=12030820|s2cid=7150871 }}</ref>

===Cognition===
{{Main|Cognition}} {{Further |Prefrontal cortex#Executive function}}

The brain is responsible for [[cognition]],<ref name="NHM preface - Cognition">{{cite book | last1=Malenka |first1=RC |last2=Nestler |first2=EJ |last3=Hyman |first3=SE | editor1-last=Sydor |editor1-first=A |editor2-last=Brown |editor2-first=RY | title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year=2009 | publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical | location=New York | isbn=978-0-07-148127-4 | page=xiii | edition=2nd | chapter=Preface }}</ref><ref name="NHMH_3e – Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control" /> which functions through numerous [[cognitive process|processes]] and [[executive function]]s.<ref name="NHMH_3e – Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control">{{cite book | vauthors = Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM | title = Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2015 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-182770-6 | edition = 3rd | chapter = Chapter 14: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control}}</ref><ref name="NHMH_3e – pathways">{{cite book | vauthors = Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM | title = Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2015 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-182770-6 | edition = 3rd | chapter=Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin}}</ref><ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | last1=Diamond |first1=A |author1-link=Adele Diamond | title=Executive functions | journal=Annual Review of Psychology | volume=64 | pages=135–168 | year=2013 | pmid=23020641 | pmc=4084861 | doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 }}<br />[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4084861/figure/F4/ Figure 4: Executive functions and related terms] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509181646/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4084861/figure/F4/ |date=May 9, 2018 }}</ref> Executive functions include the ability to filter information and tune out irrelevant stimuli with [[attentional control]] and [[cognitive inhibition]], the ability to process and manipulate information held in [[working memory]], the ability to think about multiple concepts simultaneously and [[task switching (psychology)|switch tasks]] with [[cognitive flexibility]], the ability to inhibit [[impulse (psychology)|impulses]] and [[prepotent response]]s with [[inhibitory control]], and the ability to determine the relevance of information or appropriateness of an action.<ref name="NHMH_3e – pathways" /><ref name="Executive functions" /> Higher order executive functions require the simultaneous use of multiple basic executive functions, and include [[planning]], [[prospection]] and [[fluid intelligence]] (i.e., [[reasoning]] and [[problem solving]]).<ref name="Executive functions" />

The [[prefrontal cortex]] plays a significant role in mediating executive functions.<ref name="NHMH_3e – Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control" /><ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Goldstein">{{cite book | editor1-last=Goldstein |editor1-first=S. |editor2-last=Naglieri |editor2-first=J. | last1=Hyun |first1=J.C. |last2=Weyandt |first2=L.L. |last3=Swentosky |first3=A. | title=Handbook of Executive Functioning | date=2014 | publisher=Springer | location=New York | isbn=978-1-4614-8106-5 | pages=13–23 | chapter=Chapter 2: The Physiology of Executive Functioning | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1e8VAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 }}</ref> Planning involves activation of the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] (DLPFC), [[anterior cingulate cortex]], angular prefrontal cortex, right prefrontal cortex, and [[supramarginal gyrus]].<ref name="Goldstein"/> Working memory manipulation involves the DLPFC, [[inferior frontal gyrus]], and areas of the [[parietal cortex]].<ref name="NHMH_3e – Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control" /><!--The preceding ref supports this statement, but the corresponding statements from this textbook weren't included in the reference's quote parameter--><ref name="Goldstein" /> [[Inhibitory control]] involves multiple areas of the prefrontal cortex, as well as the [[caudate nucleus]] and [[subthalamic nucleus]].<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Goldstein" /><ref name="NHMH_3e – Addiction and ADHD" />