Editing Iranian architecture (section)

== Islamic architecture ==
{{Anchor|Iranian Islamic architecture|Persian Islamic architecture|Islamic architecture of Iran|Islamic architecture of Persia}}{{See also|Islamic architecture}}

=== Early Islamic period (7th–9th centuries) ===
The [[History of Islam|Islamic era]] began with the formation of Islam under the leadership of [[Muhammad]] in early 7th-century [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]]. The [[Arab-Muslim conquest of Persia]] began soon afterwards and ended with the region coming under the control of the [[Rashidun|Rashidun Caliphs]], followed by the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphs]] after 661. Early Islamic architecture was heavily influenced by [[Byzantine architecture]] and [[Sasanian architecture]]. [[Umayyad architecture]] (661–750) drew on elements of these traditions, mixing them together and adapting them to the requirements of the new Muslim patrons.{{sfn|Petersen|1996|p=295}}<ref name=":244">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Architecture (III. 661–c. 750)''}}</ref>

After the [[Abbasid Revolution|overthrow of the Umayyads]] in 750 and their replacement by the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], the caliphate's political center shifted further east to the new capital of [[Baghdad]], in present-day Iraq. Partly as a result of this, [[Abbasid architecture]] was even more influenced by Sasanian architecture and by its roots in ancient [[Mesopotamia]].{{sfn|Petersen|1996|p=1}}<ref name=":244223">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Architecture (IV. c. 750–c. 900)''}}</ref> During the 8th and 9th centuries, the power and unity of the Abbasid Caliphate allowed architectural features and innovations from its heartlands to spread quickly to other areas of the Islamic world under its influence, including Iran.{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|pp=94–95}}

Features from the Umayyad period, such as [[Vault (architecture)|vaulting]], [[Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture|carved stucco]], and painted wall decoration, were continued and elaborated in the Abbasid period.<ref name=":244223"/> The [[four-centred arch]], a more sophisticated form of the [[pointed arch]], is first attested during the 9th century in Abbasid monuments at [[Abbasid Samarra|Samarra]] in Iraq, such as the [[Qasr al-'Ashiq|Qasr al-Ashiq]] palace.{{sfn|Petersen|1996|p=|pp=24–25, 251}}<ref name=":244223"/> It became widely used in later Iranian architecture.<ref name=":244210">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Architecture''}}</ref> Samarra also saw the appearance of new decorative styles, which rendered the earlier vegetal motifs of Sasanian and Byzantine traditions into more abstract and stylized forms, as exemplified by the so-called "beveled" style. This style subsequently spread to other regions, including Iran.<ref name=":24428">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Stucco and plasterwork''}}</ref>
[[File:Jameh Mosque of Siraf.jpg|left|thumb|Remains of the Jameh Mosque of [[Siraf]] (9th century)]]
Few of the major mosques built during this early Islamic period in Iran have survived in something close to their original form. Remains of a mosque at [[Susa]], probably from the Abbasid period, show that it had a [[hypostyle]] prayer hall (i.e. a hall with many columns supporting a roof) and a courtyard.<ref name=":244223"/> Another mosque excavated at [[Siraf]] dates to the 9th century.{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|p=110}} Attached to the mosque was a [[minaret]] (tower for the [[muezzin]] to issue the [[Adhan|call to prayer]]), the base of which remains, constituting the oldest remnants of a minaret in the eastern Islamic world.{{Sfn|Bloom|2013|pp=72–73}} The [[Jameh Mosque of Isfahan|Jameh Mosque]] of [[Isfahan]], one of the major Islamic monuments in Iran, was originally founded towards 771, but it was rebuilt and expanded in 840–841. It too had a courtyard surrounded by hypostyle halls. It continued to undergo further modifications and additions in subsequent centuries.<ref name=":2435623">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Isfahan''}}</ref>
[[File:Damghan7.jpg|thumb|[[Tarikhaneh Mosque]], one of the oldest preserved mosques in Iran{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|p=110}}]]
The only major mosque from this early period to preserve some of its original form is the [[Tarikhaneh|Tarikhaneh Mosque]] in [[Damghan]]. Though the chronology of its construction is not well-documented, its overall form and style may date to the 9th century,{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|p=110}} or possibly earlier, given its close similarities with Sassanid architecture.<ref name=":244223"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuban |first=Doğan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-TKu6nsFvaYC&pg=PA22 |title=The Mosque and Its Early Development |publisher=Brill |year=1974 |isbn=978-90-04-03813-4 |pages=22 |language=en}}</ref> It has a courtyard surrounded by a [[portico]] and a hypostyle prayer hall where the central aisle leading to the ''[[mihrab]]'' (a niche in the wall symbolizing the ''[[qibla]]'') is slightly wider than the other aisles. It originally had no minaret, but a tall cylindrical tower was added to it in 1026.{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|p=110}} This minaret is now the oldest one still standing in Iran.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Herzig |first1=Edmund |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VDqjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 |title=Early Islamic Iran |last2=Stewart |first2=Sarah |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-78673-446-4 |pages=115 |language=en}}</ref>

In secular architecture, the remains of various palaces and residences from this period have also been studied, such as those around [[Merv]] (present-day [[Turkmenistan]]). They shared many features with earlier Sasanian and [[Sogdia]]n architecture.<ref name=":244223"/> Among the recurring elements are [[iwan]]s and domed chambers. Some of the earlier examples up to the 8th century seem to have had halls with wooden pillars and roofs, while those that probably date to the 9th century seem to have favored domes and vaulted ceilings. They also had stucco decoration executed in the styles of Samarra.<ref name=":244223"/> Residences built in the countryside were enclosed by outer walls with semi-circular towers, while on the inside they had central courtyards or a central domed hall flanked by vaulted halls. Some had four iwans flanking a central courtyard.<ref name=":244223"/> The Sasanian tradition of building caravanserais along trade routes also continued, with the remains of one such structure in southern Turkmenistan attesting to the presence of a central courtyard surrounded by [[arcaded]] galleries with domed roofs.<ref name=":244223"/>

=== Emergence of regional style (10th–11th centuries) ===
[[File:تزیینات و گچبری های ایوان محراب.jpg|left|thumb|[[Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture|Stucco decoration]] inside the [[Jameh Mosque of Nain|Jameh Mosque of Na'in]] (10th century)<ref name=":2437" /> ]]
After its initial apogee of power, the Abbasid Caliphate fragmented into regional states in the 9th and 10th centuries that were formally obedient to the caliphs in Baghdad but were ''de facto'' independent.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh |title=The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=9780582405257 |edition=2nd}}</ref> In Iran and Central Asia, a number of local and regional dynasties rose to power by the 10th century: Iraq and central Iran were controlled by the [[Buyid dynasty]], northern Iran was ruled by the [[Bavand dynasty|Bawandids]] and [[Ziyarid dynasty|Ziyarids]], and the northeastern regions of [[Khurasan]] and [[Transoxiana]] were ruled by the [[Samanids]], with other dynasties arising in Central Asia soon after.<ref name=":2435">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Architecture (V. c. 900–c. 1250)''}}</ref>
[[File:Davazdah_Emam_Mausoleum,_Yazd,_Iran_(بقعه_دوازده_امام_یزد)_-_panoramio_(2).jpg|thumb|Early example of ''[[muqarnas]]'' squinches, inside the [[Davāzdah Imām|Duvazdah Imam Mausoleum]] in [[Yazd]] (1037–8)<ref name=":242222">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Muqarnas''}}</ref>]]
It is around this period that many of the distinctive features of subsequent Iranian and [[Central Asian architecture]] first emerged, including the use of baked brick for both construction and decoration, the use of glazed tile for surface decoration, and the development of ''[[muqarnas]]'' (three-dimensional geometric vaulting) from [[squinch]]es. Hypostyle mosques continued to be built and there is also evidence of multi-domed mosques, though most mosques were modified or rebuilt in later eras.<ref name=":2435" /> The [[Jameh Mosque of Nain|Jameh Mosque of Na'in]], one of the oldest surviving [[congregational mosque]]s in Iran, contains some of the best-preserved features from this period, including decorative brickwork, [[Kufic]] inscriptions, and rich stucco decoration featuring vine scrolls and acanthus leaves that draw from the earlier styles of Samarra.<ref name=":2435" /><ref name=":2437">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Na῾in''}}</ref>
[[File:Bukhara_Samanid_mausoleum_outside.JPG|thumb|[[Samanid Mausoleum]] in [[Bukhara]] (10th century), one of the oldest monumental tombs in the Islamic world.<ref name=":2436">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Bukhara''}}</ref>]]
Another important architectural trend to arise in the 10th to 11th centuries is the development of [[Mausoleum|mausolea]], which took on monumental forms for the first time. One type of mausoleum was the tomb tower, such as the [[Gunbad-i-Qabus]] (circa 1006–7), while the other main type was the domed square, such as the [[Tomb of the Samanids]] in [[Bukhara]] (before 943).{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1999b|p=100}}<ref name=":2435" />

=== Seljuk era (11th–13th centuries) ===
{{Further|Great Seljuk architecture}}

[[Turkic peoples]] began moving west across Central Asia and towards the Middle East from the 8th century onward, eventually converting to Islam and becoming major forces in the region. The most significant of these were the Seljuk Turks, who formed the [[Seljuk Empire|Great Seljuk Empire]] in the 11th century, conquering all of Iran and other extensive territories in Central Asia and the Middle East.{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|p=348}}
[[File:Gran_Mezquita_de_Isfahán,_Isfahan,_Irán,_2016-09-19,_DD_43-45_HDR_Alt.jpg|left|thumb|Northern domed chamber in the [[Jameh Mosque of Isfahan]], built in 1088–89 under patronage of [[Taj al-Mulk|Taj al-Mulk{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|pp=368–369}}]]]]
While the apogee of the Great Seljuks was short-lived, it represents a major benchmark in the history of [[Islamic art]] and architecture in Iran and Central Asia, inaugurating an expansion of patronage and of artistic forms.<ref name=":05232">{{Cite book |last1=Bosworth |first1=C.E. |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |last2=Hillenbrand |first2=R. |last3=Rogers |first3=J.M. |last4=Blois |first4=F.C. de |last5=Darley-Doran |first5=R.E. |publisher=Brill |year=1960–2007 |isbn=9789004161214 |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P. |chapter=Sald̲j̲ūḳids; VI. Art and architecture; 1. In Persia |editor-last2=Bianquis |editor-first2=Th. |editor-last3=Bosworth |editor-first3=C.E. |editor-last4=van Donzel |editor-first4=E. |editor-last5=Heinrichs |editor-first5=W.P.}}</ref><ref name=":24353">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Saljuq''}}</ref> Much of the Seljuk architectural heritage was destroyed during the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol invasions]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bonner |first=Jay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o9IxDwAAQBAJ&dq=seljuk+architecture+mongol+destruction&pg=PA69 |title=Islamic Geometric Patterns: Their Historical Development and Traditional Methods of Construction |publisher=Springer |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4419-0217-7 |pages=69 |language=en}}</ref> Nonetheless, compared to pre-Seljuk Iran, a larger volume of surviving monuments and artifacts from the Seljuk period has allowed scholars to study the arts of this era in greater depth.<ref name=":05232" /><ref name=":24353" /> Several neighbouring dynasties and empires contemporary with the Seljuks, including the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Qarakhanids]], the [[Ghaznavids]], and the [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids]], built monuments in a very similar style. A general tradition of architecture was thus shared across most of the eastern Islamic world (Iran, Central Asia, and parts of the northern [[Indian subcontinent]]) throughout the Seljuk period and its decline, from the 11th to 13th centuries.<ref name=":05232" /><ref name=":24353" /> This period is also regarded as a "classical" age of Central Asian architecture.{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|p=354–359}}

[[File:Ardestan Jame mosque.jpg|thumb|Courtyard of the [[Jameh Mosque of Ardestan]], one of the mosques given a four-iwan layout during the Seljuk period (1158–1160)<ref name=":2435" />]]
The most important religious monument from the Great Seljuk period is the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, which was expanded and modified by various Seljuk patrons in the late 11th century and early 12th century. Two major and innovative domed chambers were added to it in the late 11th century. Four large iwans were then erected around the courtyard around the early 12th century, giving rise to the [[four-iwan plan]] in mosque architecture.{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|pp=368–369}}{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins-Madina|2001|p=140–144}}<ref name="O'Kane">O'Kane, Bernard (1995). [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/domes Domes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511220458/https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/domes|date=2022-05-11}}. ''Encyclopaedia Iranica'', Online Edition. Retrieved 28 November 2010.</ref> The four-iwan plan quickly became popular and was applied to other major mosques around this time, including those of [[Jameh Mosque of Ardestan|Ardestan]] and [[Jameh Mosque of Zavareh|Zavareh]], as well as in secular architecture.<ref name=":2435" /> It was probably also used for [[madrasa]]s, a new type of building introduced around this time, though none of the Seljuk madrasas have been well preserved.<ref name=":2435" />

[[File:Kharaghan.jpg|thumb|The [[Kharraqan towers|Kharraqan twin towers]] or mausoleums, built in 1068 and 1093 near [[Qazvin]]|left]]
Lodging places (''khān'', or caravanserai) for travellers and their animals, generally displayed utilitarian rather than ornamental architecture, with rubble masonry, strong fortifications, and minimal comfort.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1999b|p=109}} Large caravanserais were built as a way to foster trade and assert Seljuk authority in the countryside. They typically consisted of a building with a fortified exterior appearance, monumental entrance portal, and interior courtyard surrounded by various halls, including iwans. Some notable examples, only partly preserved, are the caravanserais of [[Rabati Malik|Ribat-i Malik]] (c. 1068–1080) and [[Ribat of Sharaf|Ribat-i Sharaf]] (12th century) in Transoxiana and Khorasan, respectively.{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins-Madina|2001|p=153–154}}<ref name=":2435" />{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|p=363–364}}

The Seljuks also continued to build "tower tombs", an Iranian building type from earlier periods, such as the [[Toghrol Tower|Toghrul Tower]] built in [[Ray, Iran|Rayy]] (south of present-day [[Tehran]]) in 1139. More innovative, however, was the introduction of mausoleums with a square or polygonal floor plan, which later became a common form of monumental tombs. Early examples of this are the two [[Kharraqan towers|Kharraqan Mausoleums]] (1068 and 1093) near [[Qazvin]] (northern Iran), which have octagonal forms, and the large [[Tomb of Ahmad Sanjar|Mausoleum of Sanjar]] (c. 1152) in Merv (present-day Turkmenistan), which has a square base.{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins-Madina|2001|p=146}}

[[File:11 kyr.jpg|thumb|[[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Qarakhanid]] Mausoleums in [[Uzgen]], Kyrgyzstan, second half of the 12th century]]
Around the same time, between the late 10th century and the early 13th century, the Turkic Qarakhanids ruled in Transoxiana and executed many impressive constructions in Bukhara and [[Samarkand]] (present-day [[Uzbekistan]]). Among the known Qarakhanid monuments are the great congregational mosque in Bukhara, of which only the [[Kalyan Minaret]] (c. 1127) survives, the nearby Minaret of [[Vobkent|Vabkent]] (1141), and several Qarakhanid mausoleums with monumental façades, such as those in [[Uzgen]] (present-day [[Kyrgyzstan]]) from the second half of the 12th century.{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|p=354–359}}

[[File:Jam5.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Minaret of Jam]] (late 12th century), present-day Afghanistan|left]]
Further east, the first major Turkic dynasty was the [[Ghaznavids]], who became independent in the late 10th century and ruled from [[Ghazni|Ghazna]], in present-day Afghanistan. In the second half of the 12th century, the [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids]] replaced them as the major power in the region from northern India to the edge of the [[Caspian Sea]].{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|p=330–332}}{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins-Madina|2001|p=134}} Among the most remarkable monuments of these two dynasties are a number of ornate brick towers and minarets which have survived as stand-alone structures. Their exact functions are unclear. They include the [[Ghazni Minarets|Tower of Mas'ud III]] near Ghazna (early 12th century) and the [[Minaret of Jam]] built by the Ghurids (late 12th century), also in present-day Afghanistan.{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|p=336–337}}{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins-Madina|2001|p=150–152}}

[[File:Il_Arslan_Mausoleum_(2)_(45385810581).jpg|thumb|Mausoleum of Fakhr al-Din Razi or Il-Arslan in [[Konye-Urgench|Kunya-Urgench]], [[Turkmenistan]], late 12th or early 13th century ([[Khwarazmian Empire]] period)]]
As the Great Seljuks declined in the 12th century, various other dynasties (often also of Turkic origin) formed smaller states and empires. In Iran and Central Asia, the [[Khwarazmian Empire|Khwarazm-Shahs]], formerly vassals of the Seljuks and [[Qara Khitai]], took advantage of this to expand their power and form the Khwarazmian Empire, occupying much of the region and conquering the Ghurids in the early 13th century, only to fall soon after to the Mongol invasions.{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins-Madina|2001|p=134}} The site of the former Khwarazmian capital, [[Konye-Urgench|Kunya-Urgench]] (in present-day Turkmenistan), has preserved several monuments from the Khwarazmian Empire period (late 12th and early 13th century), including the so-called Mausoleum of [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi|Fakhr al-Din Razi]] (possibly the tomb of [[Il-Arslan]]) and the Mausoleum of Sultan [[Ala al-Din Tekish|Tekesh]].{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|p=360–366}}<ref name=":24352">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Kunya-Urgench''}}</ref>

=== Ilkhanids (13th–14th centuries) ===
{{Main|Ilkhanid architecture}}
[[File:Mezquita del Viernes, Yazd, Irán, 2016-09-21, DD 10.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Entrance portal with ''muqarnas'' vaulting, twin minarets, and tile decoration at the [[Jameh Mosque of Yazd]], [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanid period]] (14th century)]]
From the 13th century to the early 16th century, Iran and Central Asia came under the control of two major dynasties descended from the Mongol conqueror [[Genghis Khan]], the [[Ilkhanids]] (1256–1353) and the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurids]] (1370–1506). This period saw the construction of some of the largest and most ambitious Iranian monuments of the Islamic world.<ref name=":24356">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Architecture (VI. c. 1250–c. 1500)''}}</ref> The Ilkhanids were initially traditional nomadic Mongols, but at the end of the 13th century, [[Ghazan Khan]] ({{Reign|1295|1304}}) converted to Islam and aided a cultural and economic resurgence in which urban Iranian culture was of primary importance. Ilkhanid vassals, like the [[Muzaffarids (Iran)|Muzaffarids]] and the [[Jalayirids]], also sponsored new constructions.<ref name=":24356" />

[[File:Abdul_Samad_Isfahani_Shrine_Natanz.jpg|thumb|Muqarnas dome inside the Mausoleum of [[Abdussamad Esfahani|Shaykh 'Abd al-Samad]] in [[Natanz]] (1307–8)]]
[[Ilkhanid architecture]] elaborated earlier Iranian traditions. In particular, greater attention was given to interior spaces and how to organize them. Rooms were made taller, while transverse vaulting was employed and walls were opened with arches, thus allowing more light and air inside.<ref name=":24356" /> ''Muqarnas'', which was previously confined to covering limited transitional elements like squinches, was now used to cover entire domes and vaults for purely decorative effect. The Tomb of [[Abdussamad Esfahani|'Abd al-Samad]] in [[Natanz]] (1307–8), for example, is covered inside by an elaborate ''muqarnas'' dome that is made from stucco suspended below the pyramidal vault that roofs the building.<ref name=":24356" />

Brick remained the main construction material, but more color was added through the use of tile mosaic, which involved cutting monochrome tiles of different colors into pieces that were then fitted together to form larger patterns, especially [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric motifs]] and floral motifs.<ref name=":24356" /> Carved stucco decoration also continued. Some exceptional examples in Iran come from this period, including a wall of carved stucco in the [[Mausoleum of Pir-i Bakran]] in Linjan (near Isfahan),<ref name=":2435623" /> and a mihrab added in 1310 to the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan. The latter is one of the masterpieces of Islamic sculptural art from this era, featuring multiple layers of deeply-carved vegetal motifs, along with a carved inscription.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=10–11}}

[[File:Irnt038-Isfahan-Meczet Piątkowy.jpg|thumb|Details of the carved stucco mihrab added by the Ilkhanids in 1310 to the Jameh Mosque in Isfahan]]
Various mosques were built or expanded during this period, usually following the four-iwan plan for congregational mosques (e.g. at [[Jameh Mosque of Varamin|Varamin]] and [[Jameh Mosque of Kerman|Kirman]]), except in the northwest, where cold winters discouraged the presence of an open courtyard, as at the Jameh Mosque of [[Ardabil]] (now ruined). Another hallmark of the Ilkhanid period is the introduction of monumental mosque portals topped by twin minarets, as seen at the [[Jameh Mosque of Yazd]].<ref name=":24356" /> Caravanserais were built again, although the [[Khan al-Mirjan]] in Baghdad is the only surviving example.<ref name=":24356" />

[[File:Solt dome 1.JPG|thumb|[[Dome of Soltaniyeh|Mausoleum of Uljaytu]] at [[Soltaniyeh]] (early 14th century)]]
The most impressive monument to survive from this period is the [[Dome of Soltaniyeh|Soltaniyeh Mausoleum]] built for Sultan [[Uljaytu]] ({{Reign|1304|1317}}), a massive dome supported on a multi-level octagonal structure with internal and external galleries. Only the domed building remains today, missing much of its original turquoise tile decoration, but it was once the centerpiece of a larger religious complex including a mosque, a [[Bimaristan|hospital]], and living areas.<ref name=":05223">{{Cite book |last=Tabbaa |first=Yasser |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |language=en |chapter=Architecture |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref> Smaller tombs and shrines in honour of local Sufis were also built or renovated by Ilkhanid patrons, such as the shrine of [[Bayazid Bastami]] in the town of [[Bastam]], the aforementioned Mausoleum of Pir-i Bakran, and the aforementioned Tomb of Abd-al-Samad.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=8–10}} Also in Bastam, the Ilkhanids built a traditional tower tomb to house the remains of Uljaytu's infant son. Unusually, rather than being an independent structure, the tomb was erected behind the ''qibla'' wall of the town's main mosque – a configuration also found in some contemporary [[Mamluk architecture]].{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=8–10}}

=== Timurids (14th–15th centuries) ===
{{Main|Timurid architecture}}
{{See also|Timurid art}}
[[File:Bibi-Khanym Mosque in Samarkand, Uzbekistan (6134515470).jpg|left|thumb|[[Bibi-Khanym Mosque|Bibi Khanum Mosque]] in [[Samarkand]] (1399–1405)]]
The [[Timurid Empire]], created by [[Timur]] ({{Reign|1370|1405}}), oversaw another cultural renaissance. [[Timurid architecture]] continued the tradition of Ilkhanid architecture, building monuments once again on a grand scale and with lavish decoration made to impress, but they also refined previous designs and techniques.<ref name=":05223"/> Timurid rulers recruited the best craftsmen from their conquered territories or even forced them to move to the Timurid capital.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=37}}

Brick continued to be used as construction material. To cover large brick surfaces with colorful decoration, the ''[[banna'i]]'' technique was used to create geometric patterns and Kufic inscriptions at relatively low cost, while more expensive tile mosaic continued to be used for floral patterns.<ref name=":24356" /> Tiles were preferred on the outside, while interior walls could be covered with carved or painted plaster instead.<ref name=":24356" />
[[File:2009 Musalla Complex Herat Afghanistan 4112214896.jpg|thumb|Vaulting inside the [[Gawhar Shad Mausoleum]] in [[Herat]] (early 15th century) ]]
Among the most important Timurid innovations was the more sophisticated and fluid arrangement of geometric vaulting.<ref name=":05223"/><ref name=":24356" /> Large vaults were divided by intersecting [[Rib vault|ribs]] into smaller vaults which could then be further subdivided or filled with ''muqarnas'' and other types of decoration. ''Muqarnas'' itself also became even more complex by using smaller individual cells to create the larger three-dimensional geometric plan. Visual balance could be achieved by alternating one type or pattern of decoration with another between the different subdivisions of the vault. By combining these vaulting techniques with a cruciform plan and by breaking the solid mass of supporting walls with open arches and windows, a strict division between dome, squinch, and wall was dissolved and an endless diversity of elaborate interior spaces could be created.<ref name=":24356" />

The most significant preserved Timurid monuments are found in and around the cities of Khorasan and Transoxiana, including Samarkand, Bukhara, [[Herat]], and [[Mashhad]].<ref name=":24356" /> Timur's own monuments are distinguished by their size; notably, the [[Bibi-Khanym Mosque|Bibi Khanum Mosque]] and the [[Gur-i Amir Mausoleum]], both in Samarkand, and his imposing but now-ruined [[Ak-Saray Palace]] at [[Shahrisabz|Shahr-i Sabz]].<ref name=":24356" /> The Gur-i Amir Mausoleum and the Bibi Khanum Mosque are distinguished by their lavish interior and exterior decoration, their imposing portals, and their prominent dome. The domes are supported on tall, cylindrical [[Tholobate|drums]] and have a pointed, bulging profile, sometimes [[Fluting (architecture)|fluted]] or ribbed.<ref name=":24356232"/>
[[File:Registan Ulugbek madrasah2014.JPG|left|thumb|Façade of the [[Ulugh Beg Madrasa, Samarkand|Ulugh Beg Madrasa]] at the [[Registan]] in Samarkand (1417–1420)]]
Timur's successors built on a somewhat smaller scale, but under the patronage of [[Gawhar Shad]], the wife of his son [[Shah Rukh]] ({{Reign|1405|1447}}), Timurid architecture attained the height of sophistication during the first half of the 15th century.<ref name=":24356" /> Her monuments were mainly found in Mashhad and Herat,<ref name=":24356" /> though some have been destroyed or severely damaged since the 19th century, including [[Gawhar Shad Mausoleum|her mausoleum]] and mosque complex (1417–1438). Some of the surviving vaulting and decoration inside her mausoleum is nonetheless indicative of its original quality.<ref name=":24357">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Herat''}}</ref>

Under [[Ulugh Beg]] ({{Reign|1447|1449}}), the [[Registan|Registan Square]] in Samarkand was first transformed into a monumental complex similar to what it is today. He built three structures around the square, of which only the [[Ulugh Beg Madrasa, Samarkand|Ulugh Beg Madrasa]] (1417–1420) survives today (two other monumental structures were erected around the square at later periods), with a large façade covered by a rich variety of decoration.<ref name=":24356232">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Samarkand''}}</ref>

Timurid patronage was of high importance in the history of art and architecture across a wide part of the Islamic world. The international Timurid style was eventually integrated into the visual culture of the rising [[Ottoman Empire]] in the west,{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=50}} while to the east it was transmitted to the Indian subcontinent by the [[Mughals]], who were descended from Timur.<ref name=":05222">{{Cite book |last=Asher |first=Catherine B. |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2020 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |chapter=Mughal architecture |issn=1873-9830 |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref>
[[File:Blue Mosque interior from Entrance.jpg|thumb|Interior of the [[Blue Mosque, Tabriz|Blue Mosque]] in [[Tabriz]] (1465)]]
During the late 14th and 15th centuries, western Iran was dominated by two powerful [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] confederations, the [[Qara Qoyunlu]] and the [[Aq Qoyunlu]]. While few monuments sponsored by either faction have been preserved, what does remain shows that the Timurid style was already spreading westward during this period.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=50}} One of the most significant Qara Qoyunlu monuments is the [[Blue Mosque, Tabriz|Blue Mosque]] or Muzaffariya Mosque (1465) in [[Tabriz]], now partly ruined. It has an unusual T-shaped layout around a central dome, not unlike the Ottoman [[Green Mosque, Bursa|Green Mosque]] in [[Bursa]], and is decorated with a revetment of very high-quality tilework in six colours, including a deep blue.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=|pp=50–52}}

=== Safavids and Uzbeks (16th–18th centuries) ===
{{Further|Safavid art}}
The [[Safavids]], who forged a large [[Shia Islam|Shi'i]] empire in the 16th century that encompassed all of Iran and some neighbouring regions, initially inherited the traditions of Timurid architecture. To adapt this tradition into a new imperial style, Safavid architects pushed it to an even grander scale.<ref name=":243562">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Architecture (VII. c. 1500–c. 1900)''}}</ref> Safavid architecture simplified Timurid architecture to an extent, creating large architectural ensembles that are arranged around more static, fixed perspectives that appear more ceremonial, with more uniform building exteriors and more streamlined vault designs.<ref name=":243562" /><ref name=":05223"/> At the same time, buildings were carefully planned and often given an open layout that made them easy to enjoy.<ref name=":243562" /> The most characteristic decoration was tile mosaic, applied on a grand scale. The decorative program often served to obscure rather than highlight the structural design of buildings.<ref name=":05223" /><ref name=":243562" /> This Safavid style took shape in Isfahan and subsequently spread to other parts of the empire.<ref name=":243562" />
[[File:نمای گنبد از مشهد پشت بنا.jpg|thumb|Exterior of the Jannat Sarai (16th century), an early Safavid construction, added by [[Tahmasp I]] to the [[Sheikh Safi al-Din Khānegāh and Shrine Ensemble|shrine complex of Sheikh Safi al-Din]] in [[Ardabil]]|left]]
Relatively few Safavid monuments have been preserved from before the period prior to the reign of [[Shah Abbas I]] ({{Reign|1588|1629}}).<ref name=":05223" /><ref name=":243562" /> The most important exception is the [[Sheikh Safi al-Din Khānegāh and Shrine Ensemble|tomb and religious complex of Sheikh Safi al-Din]] in [[Ardabil]]. This complex had been in development since the time of [[Safi-ad-din Ardabili|Safi al-Din]] (d. 1334), who founded a Sufi order with which [[Ismail I|Isma'il I]] ({{Reign|1501|1524}}), the first Safavid ruler, associated himself. Safavid additions to the site began in the early 16th century, when Isma'il's small domed tomb was built here. His successor, [[Tahmasp I]] ({{Reign|1524|1576}}), carried out the first major Safavid expansion of the complex. The most important structure added was the Jannat Sarai, a large octagonal structure in the same tradition as the old Ilkhanid mausoleum in Soltaniyeh, perhaps originally intended to be the domed tomb of Tahmasp I. Abbas I also made further renovations and additions to the site after this.{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|pp=507–509}}
[[File:Miri Arab Madrassah Bokhara May 2007 - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Po-i-Kalyan|Mir-i 'Arab Madrasa]] in Bukhara, built under the [[Shaybanids]] in the early 16th century]]
Contemporary with the Safavids in Iran were other dynasties and ruling groups in Central Asia, such as the [[Shaybanids]] and other [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]] tribal leaders. Monumental buildings continued to be built here, drawing on the traditional Timurid style.<ref name=":243562" /> In Bukhara, the Shaybanids created the present [[Po-i-Kalyan|Po-i-Kalyan complex]], integrating the Qarakhanid-era Kalan Minaret, renovating the old mosque in 1514, and adding the large Mir-i 'Arab Madrasa (1535–6).{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=199–201}} Later, in Samarkand, the local ruler Yalangtush Bi Alchin gave the Registan its current appearance by building two new madrasas across from Ulugh Beg's madrasa. The [[Sher-Dor Madrasa]] (1616–1636) imitates the form of the Ulugh Beg Madrasa, while the Tilla Kar Madrasa (1646–1660) is both a mosque and a madrasa.<ref name=":24356232"/> Architectural activity became less significant in the region after the 17th century, with the exception of [[Khiva]]. The [[Juma Mosque (Khiva)|Friday mosque of Khiva]], with its distinctive hypostyle hall of wooden columns, was rebuilt in this form in 1788–9.<ref name=":243562" />

==== Safavid Isfahan ====

Abbas I made Isfahan his capital and embarked on the most ambitious program of construction of the Safavid period. As a result, a very large proportion of preserved Safavid monuments are concentrated in this one city. Abbas I moved the political and economic center of the city from its traditional location near the old Jameh Mosque to a new area near the [[Zayandeh River]] to the south, where a new planned city was created. It includes a sprawling [[Grand Bazaar, Isfahan|Grand Bazaar]], lined with caravanserais, which opens via a monumental portal onto a vast, rectangular public square, the [[Naqsh-e Jahan Square|Maidan-i Shah or Naqsh-e Jahan]], laid out between 1590 and 1602.<ref name=":243562" /><ref name=":2435623"/> The entire square is surrounded by a two-level arcade and symbolizes Abbas I's ambition to be one of the greatest sovereigns on the world stage. In addition to the bazaar's portal, three other buildings stand at the middle of each side of the square: the [[Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque|Sheikh Lutfallah Mosque]] (1603–1619), the [[Shah Mosque (Isfahan)|Shah Mosque]] (1611–{{Circa|1630}}), and the [[Ali Qapu]], a palace gateway and pavilion begun {{Circa|1597}} and finished under [[Abbas II of Persia|Abbas II]], c. 1660.<ref name=":243562" /><ref name=":2435623" />

{{wide image|Naghsh-e_Jahan_Square.jpg|800px|{{center|[[Naqsh-i Jahan Square|Naqshe Jahan square]] in Isfahan is the epitome of Safavid-era architecture.}}}}
[[File:Sheikh-Lotfollah-Ceiling.jpg|thumb|Interior of the dome of the [[Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque|Sheikh Lutfallah Mosque]] in Isfahan (1603–1619)]]
The two mosques on the square are each entered via monumental portals, but due to the difference between the direction of the ''[[qibla]]'' and the orientation of the square, both mosques are built at an angle from it and their vestibules bend on the way in. Both have prayer halls covered by a single large, double-shelled dome, though the Shah Mosque's prayer hall is also flanked by two hypostyle halls.<ref name=":2435623" /> Unlike in Timurid monuments, the dome interiors are not geometrically subdivided and have a uniform surface instead.<ref name=":05223" /> An effect of lightness is achieved instead by the transitional zone of arches, squinches, and windows, with the walls of the prayer hall in the Shah Mosque also pierced by open archways. On the outside, the domes have an [[Onion dome|"onion" shape]] (i.e. bulging on the sides and pointed on top).<ref name=":2435623" /> While the Shah Mosque has minarets and a traditional central courtyard surrounded by four iwans, the Lutfallah Mosque has no minarets and is different from all other Safavid mosques by consisting only of the single domed chamber.<ref name=":2435623" /> The interiors of both mosques are entirely covered in glazed tiles, predominantly blue, which were restored in the 1930s on the basis of the few remaining original tiles.<ref name=":2435623" />
[[File:2پل خواجو.jpg|left|thumb|[[Khwaju bridge|Khwaju Bridge]] (1650) in Isfahan]]
To the west of the Maidan-i Shah square was a large palace complex of gardens and pavilions. The most important surviving pavilion, [[Chehel Sotoun]] ("Forty Columns"), is dated to 1647 by an inscription, but may have been established earlier. In 1706–7, a deep, broad porch with columns was added to it, giving it its present appearance. The other notable surviving pavilion, [[Hasht Behesht]], mostly dates to the late 17th century.<ref name=":243562" /><ref name=":2435623" /> To the west of the palace grounds is a long, wide avenue called the [[Chaharbagh, Isfahan|Chaharbagh]] ("Four Gardens") which ends in the south at the [[Si-o-se-pol]] ("Bridge of thirty-three arches") bridge, built in 1602. The bridge is lined with arcades and features a wide central lane for caravans and beasts of burden as well as side passages for pedestrians.<ref name=":243562" /> Further downstream, the [[Khwaju bridge|Khwaju Bridge]] (1650) is one of the finest monuments of the reign of Abbas II. Like the Si-o-se-pol, it combines aesthetic effect with practical function, but it is more complex and represents the apex of Safavid bridge design. It has two levels, each with a wide central passage for caravans and side passages for pedestrians along its flanking arches. At the middle of the bridge is a wider viewing pavilion with an octagonal layout.<ref name=":243562" />{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|pp=517–518}}
[[File:Vank Cathedral 06.jpg|thumb|Interior of the [[Vank Cathedral]] in Isfahan (18th century)]]
These bridges connect the city centre with the south bank of the Zayandeh River, where royal Safavid hunting grounds were once located. After 1604, a Christian [[Armenians|Armenian]] quarter, [[New Julfa]], was also created here. Some 30 or so churches were built in the area, of which 13 survive today, dating to the 17th and early 18th centuries.<ref name=":2435623" /> The churches imported [[Armenian architecture|Armenian features]] and combined them with the contemporary Safavid style,<ref name=":2435623" /> as exemplified by the [[Vank Cathedral]] (or Holy Saviour Cathedral), dating in its current form to around 1656.{{Sfn|Hattstein|Delius|2011|p=518}}

=== Zands and Qajars (18th–early 20th centuries) ===
{{See also|Qajar art}}
As the Safavids declined in the 18th century, the [[Zand dynasty]] made [[Shiraz]] its capital. [[Karim Khan Zand|Muhammad Karim Khan Zand]], the dynasty's founder, created a grand square and built a new set of monuments, in a way similar to the Safavid construction projects in Isfahan, though on a smaller scale.<ref name=":243562" /> Among the surviving monuments of this project is the [[Vakil Mosque]], begun in 1766 and restored in 1827, as well as a bazaar and a [[hammam]] (bathhouse).<ref name=":243562" />
[[File:استعینوا بالصبر.jpg|left|thumb|Painted tilework with images of flowers, at the [[Nasir al-Mulk Mosque]] (1876–1888) in [[Shiraz]]]]
In northern Iran, the [[Qajar Iran|Qajars]] made their capital at [[Tehran]]. They continued to build mosques throughout the country with a traditional courtyard layout with four iwans, but with certain variations and the introduction of new features like clocktowers. The Qajars also expanded major shrines like the [[Imam Reza shrine|Imam Reza Shrine]] in Mashhad and the [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] in [[Qom]].<ref name=":243562" /> In Shiraz (which came under Qajar rule in 1794), the [[Nasir-ol-Molk Mosque|Mosque of Nasir al-Mulk]] (1876–1888) has a traditional layout but exemplifies a new style of decorative tiles, painted in [[Overglaze decoration|overglaze]] with images of flower bouquets in predominantly blue, pink, yellow, violet and green colors, sometimes on a white background. This type of tile decoration can also be seen at the [[Sepahsalar Mosque]] in Tehran (1881–1890).<ref name=":243562" />

[[File:Shamsolemareh Palace 01.jpg|thumb|The Shams ol-Emareh in the [[Golestan Palace]] in [[Tehran]], added by [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Shah]] ({{Reign|1848|1896}})]]
Of the Qajar palaces built in and around Tehran, the most famous is the [[Golestan Palace]], which was both the administrative center and the shah's winter residence. Used by successive Qajar rulers, the palace underwent many modifications that illustrate the progressive changes over this period.<ref name=":243562" /> Traditional forms were still prevalent under [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar|Fath Ali Shah]] ({{Reign|1797|1834}}), who commissioned the [[Marble Throne]] and installed it in a traditional audience hall fronted by columns.<ref name=":243562" /><ref name=":2435622" /> The 19th century also saw the rise of [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivalist]] trends. Qajar monarchs, including Fath Ali Shah, commissioned works that deliberately referenced Safavid and ancient Sasanian architecture, hoping to appropriate their symbolism of kingship and empire.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Grigor |first=Talinn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6YgpDwAAQBAJ |title=A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2017 |isbn=9781119068662 |editor-last=Flood |editor-first=Finbarr Barry |pages=1089–1097 |language=en |chapter=Kings and Traditions in Différance: Antiquity Revisited in Post-Safavid Iran |editor-last2=Necipoğlu |editor-first2=Gülru}}</ref>

[[File:Afif Abad Garden, Shiraz (5).jpg|thumb|[[Afif-Abad Garden]] (1863–1867) in [[Shiraz]] is an example of Achaemenid and Sasanian [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivalism]]{{Sfn|Grigor|2021|pp=172–174}}]]
Under [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Shah]] ({{Reign|1848|1896}}), new elements and styles of European inspiration began to be introduced, such as tall windows, [[pilaster]]s, and formal staircases. At the Golestan Palace, he added the Shams ol-Emareh, a tall multi-leveled structure with two towers.<ref name=":243562" /><ref name=":2435622">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Qajar''}}</ref> He also remodelled Tehran, demolishing the dense urban fabric in parts of the old city, as well as its historic walls, and replacing them with boulevards and open squares inspired by what he saw in his visits to Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haghighi |first=Farzaneh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9OlwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 |title=Is the Tehran Bazaar Dead? Foucault, Politics, and Architecture |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-5275-1779-0 |pages=80 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2435622" />

At the beginning of the 20th century, during the last decades of Qajar rule and the early years of [[Pahlavi Iran|Pahlavi rule]], revivalist trends continued to be popular and were employed in the design of both public and private buildings, including those commissioned by the rising bourgeoisie. This resulted in many examples of buildings across the country with an eclectic blend of stylistic features from both the Islamic and ancient Zoroastrian eras.<ref name=":2" />